The Church of SS Manual Sabel and Ishmael

The church dedicated to the three martyr brothers, SS. Manual, Sabel, and Ishmael, was likely located on the Fifth Hill. This is because it stood near the point where the wall began to descend towards the Golden Horn. This matches the description in the Synaxaria, which states that the church was beside the land wall of Constantine, situated on steep ground, and close to the Church of St. Elias at the Petrion. The location of the church aligns with these details, confirming that it must have been on the Fifth Hill.

The District of Harmatius

The district of Harmatius is named after a notable figure during the reign of Emperor Zeno. The district can be found in the plain bordered by the Fifth, Fourth, and Third Hills, as well as the Golden Horn. This plain, known in later years as the Plateia (or IlXareia), was the area where the fortifications of Constantine’s wall would have descended from the Fifth Hill. The walls then proceeded on their northeastern course toward the Golden Horn Private Sofia Tour.

The Notitia, a historical document, indicates that the northern end of the city’s walls extended to this point. It is likely that in Constantine’s time, the bay at this location extended further into the plain than it does today.

Church of St. Antony

A church dedicated to St. Antony was located in this part of the city. The Archbishop of Novgorod visited Constantinople at the end of the eleventh century and documented his visit to the church of St. Antony. Before visiting St. Antony’s church, he paid his respects at several other notable churches in the city, including the Church of St. Theodosia, the Church of St. Isaiah, and the Church of St. Laurentius. These churches were all located in the same plain.

The Church of St. Theodosia is believed to have been located at what is now the Mosque Gul Djami, near Aya Kapou. The Church of St. Isaiah is thought to correspond to the Mosque of Sheik Mourad, and the Church of St. Laurentius is believed to be represented by the Mosque of Pour Kouyou, further to the south.

The Location of St. Antony’s Church

The Archbishop mentions that the Church of St. Antony was on higher ground than the Church of St. Laurentius. It was situated slightly up the slope of the Fourth Hill. This suggests that the church of St. Antony of Harmatius was located at a slightly elevated spot, which is consistent with the historical description of the church’s location. Therefore, it is highly probable that this church occupied the higher ground just above the Fourth Hill.

In summary, the churches and landmarks mentioned in the text correspond to specific locations within Constantinople, primarily around the Fifth, Fourth, and Third Hills, and the Golden Horn. The Church of SS. Manual, Sabel, and Ishmael was located on the Fifth Hill, near the Constantinian wall. The district of Harmatius is situated in the plain bordered by the Golden Horn, while the Church of St. Antony is thought to have been located on the higher ground near the Fourth Hill.

The Location of the Cistern of Bonus

Dr. Strzygowski proposed that the Cistern of Bonus might have been located near Eski Ali Pasha Djamissi, on the northern bank of the Lycus Valley, to the southwest of the Mosque of Sultan Mehmed. However, there have been no traces of a cistern found in this area. Despite this, Strzygowski’s suggestion is reasonable when considering its proximity to the line of Constantine’s Wall and the Church of the Holy Apostles.

Yet, the choice of this location for a summer palace remains unclear. The area might have been cool and suitable for such a purpose, but without further evidence, it’s hard to explain why this spot was specifically chosen for the palace.

The Constantinian Wall and Its Route

The Constantinian Wall, after passing the Cistern of Aspar, turns sharply to the north-east. The wall continues towards the shore of the Golden Horn by crossing the ridge of the Fifth Hill at an oblique angle. This direction is important for two reasons Private Sofia Tour.

Why the Wall Took This Route

First, this route helps keep the width of the city within the dimensions specified in the Notitia, an important source of information about the city’s layout. According to the Notitia, the city’s Eleventh Region did not extend all the way to the Golden Horn. The document clearly states: “Nulla parte mari sociata est,” which translates to “No part [of the region] is connected to the sea.”

This statement implies that the northern fortifications of the city, in the Eleventh Region, were not near the water but set back from it. This further explains why the fortifications along the northern front of the city must have been positioned at a distance from the Golden Horn.

The Geography of the Fifth Hill

The Fifth Hill slopes steeply toward the Golden Horn, so there wasn’t much available land for building on this side of the city. The only usable space for the fortifications in this area would have been the plateau of the Fifth Hill. This location is where the large cistern beside the Mosque of Sultan Selim can be found.

While Dr. Strzygowski’s suggestion about the Cistern of Bonus location is reasonable based on the proximity to significant landmarks, there is still no physical evidence to confirm it. Additionally, the path taken by the Constantinian Wall was essential for maintaining the boundaries of the city as described in the Notitia. The geography of the Fifth Hill limited where fortifications could be built, which led to the positioning of key structures along its plateau.

The Cistern of Bonus and Its Importance

The Cistern of Bonus was located in a particularly cool area of Constantinople, making it an ideal spot during the hot summer months. Due to this location, Emperor Romanus I decided to build a palace near the cistern. This palace, known as the New Palace of Bonus, served as his residence during the warmer season.

Cool Location and Attractive Views

In Constantinople, there was no cooler place to be in the summer than the terrace where the Mosque of Sultan Selim now stands. The area offered a great view of the Golden Horn, which made it even more attractive. This combination of coolness and breathtaking views made it the perfect spot for the emperor to escape the heat of the summer months Private Sofia Tour.

Proximity to the Church of the Holy Apostles

Another important factor to consider is the Cistern of Bonus’s proximity to the Church of the Holy Apostles. On the eve of an important annual service held in the church to honor Constantine the Great, the Imperial Court would often stay at the Palace of Bonus. This was done to be within easy riding distance of the church for the festival the next morning. The close location of the Palace of Bonus to the Church of the Holy Apostles made it a convenient place for the emperor and his court to stay during the event.

The Route from the Palace to the Church

On the way from the Palace of Bonus to the Church of the Holy Apostles, there was an old cistern that had been converted into market gardens. This cistern might have been the one near the Mosque of Sultan Selim, which further supports the idea that the Cistern of Bonus was located near the mosque.

The Wall of Constantine and Its Relation to the Cistern

The Wall of Constantine, which surrounded Constantinople, passed close to the Cistern of Bonus. Specifically, the wall moved from the Cistern of Aspar to the Golden Horn, passing near the Mosque of Sultan Selim. This supports the idea that the cistern near the mosque could have been the Cistern of Bonus.

A Key Difference in Identification

However, there is a significant issue with identifying the Cistern of Bonus with the reservoir near the Mosque of Sultan Selim. The Cistern of Bonus was roofed, while the reservoir beside the mosque appears to have always been open. This key difference suggests that while the two locations are close, they may not be the same.

The Cistern of Bonus played an important role in the life of Constantinople. It was strategically located in a cool and pleasant area, close to the Palace of Bonus and the Church of the Holy Apostles. While there is evidence to support its location near the Mosque of Sultan Selim, the difference in the structure of the cisterns makes it uncertain whether they are the same. Further research may be needed to fully confirm the exact location of this significant Byzantine landmark.

The Cistern of Bonus and Its Location

The conclusion regarding the course of the Constantinian Wall aligns with the information given by Zosimus and the Notitia. As mentioned earlier, these sources suggest that the wall passed close to this point. Now, let’s look at another important landmark: the Cistern of Bonus.

The Importance of the Cistern of Bonus

The Cistern of Bonus was built by the Patrician Bonus, a well-known figure in Byzantine history. He is most famous for his brave defense of Constantinople in 627. During that time, the Emperor Heraclius was away in Persia fighting the Persians and the Avars. Bonus’s efforts in protecting the city while the emperor was abroad earned him significant recognition.

Dispute Over the Cistern’s Location

There is a disagreement about where exactly the Cistern of Bonus was located. It is not easy to determine its exact position with the information we have today. Gyllius, a 16th-century traveler, believed that the cistern was a large one located on the Sixth Hill, near the Church of St. John in Petra. He described it as being 300 paces in length and robbed of its roof and columns, turned into a vegetable garden Private Sofia Tour.

However, Gyllius’s identification may not be entirely accurate. The Constantinian Wall never extended that far west, so his identification of the cistern in that location is questionable.

Dr. Mordtmann’s Theory

Dr. Mordtmann, a modern scholar, has a different theory regarding the location of the Cistern of Bonus. He suggests that it was the large open reservoir found to the south-west of the Mosque of Sultan Selim, on the Fifth Hill. This idea has strong support, and there are several reasons to believe that the Cistern of Bonus was located in this area.

In conclusion, the Cistern of Bonus plays an important role in the history of Constantinople and its defenses. Although there is still some uncertainty about its exact location, the two main theories—Gyllius’s theory and Dr. Mordtmann’s theory—offer valuable insights into the city’s infrastructure during the time of Constantine. Further studies and discoveries may eventually provide a clearer answer regarding its precise location.

The Trojan Porticoes

One important landmark along the course of the Constantinian Wall were the Trojan Porticoes. These were located so close to the wall that the wall was sometimes called the Trojan Wall after them. The Trojan Porticoes were in the Twelfth Region of the city, and they likely lined the street leading from the Porta Aurea into the city. These porticoes were significant in architecture, and there are records that they were damaged by fire or earthquake. The exact reason for their name is unclear, and unfortunately, no remains of them exist today.

Monastery of St. Dius and the Convent of Icasia

The course of the Constantinian Wall is not well known in some areas. For instance, it is stated that the wall passed beside the Monastery of St. Dius and the Convent of Icasia, but the exact locations of these places are hard to identify. These establishments are believed to have been located near each other on the Seventh Hill.

The Monastery of St. Dius is said to have been from the time of Theodosius I and was mentioned by Antony of Novgorod in connection with the Church of St. Mokius and the Church of St. Luke. The Convent of Icasia was founded by a lady named Icasia, who was known for her beauty and intelligence. Emperor Theophilus had once considered marrying her, but he rejected her after she disagreed with his belief that women were the source of evil Private Sofia Tour.

The Cistern of Aspar

The Cistern of Aspar is another important landmark near the old city wall. According to the Paschal Chronicle, this cistern was located near the ancient wall. The Tchoukour Bostan, also known as the Byzantine reservoir, is located in the same area. It is situated along the road that leads from the Mosque of Sultan Mehemet to the Adrianople Gate in the Theodosian Walls.

The Tchoukour Bostan is a large Byzantine reservoir, and it is close to the Monastery of Manuel, which was founded by the general Manuel during the reign of Theophilus. The church of this monastery is now the Kefele Mesdjidi Mosque in the Salmak Tombruk quarter. The Tchoukour Bostan is the largest Byzantine reservoir in the area and is a significant historical feature.

In conclusion, the Constantinian Wall passed several important landmarks, including the Trojan Porticoes, the Monastery of St. Dius, and the Cistern of Aspar. While some details about their exact locations are unclear, these landmarks provide important clues to the history of Constantinople and the development of the city’s defenses during the reign of Constantine.

The Ancient Gate and Its Significance

On the summit of the hill stood a marble portico, shining bright white. In front of the entrance, there was a column that once had a statue on top. When Bondelmontius visited the city in 1422, the gate was still standing. It was shown on his map of Constantinople as the “Antiquissima Pulchra Porta” (The Most Ancient Beautiful Gate). The gate remained intact even after the Turkish Conquest and was known as Isa Kapoussi, meaning “The Gate of Jesus”. It stood proudly until 1508, when a great earthquake caused it to collapse.

The Fall of Isa Kapoussi

According to the Turkish historian Solak Zade, Isa Kapoussi, near Avret Bazaar, had been standing for about 1900 years before it fell to the ground in 1508. The historian writes, “Isa Kapoussi… fell and was levelled to the ground after existing for 1900 years.” Despite the destruction, the name of the gate still lingers in the area. A small mosque near Avret Bazaar is called Isa Kapoussi Mesdjidi (The Mosque of Isa Kapoussi), and the street next to it is named Isa Kapoussi Sokaki (Isa Kapoussi Street) Sofia Guided Tours.

The Mosque and Its Connection to the Gate

The mosque, now standing on the site, was originally a Christian church. The name of the mosque and street suggests the church may have had a name that influenced its Turkish title. This is significant because the original Isa Kapoussi gate was near the spot where this mosque stands today.

The Wall of Constantine

It is clear from these facts that the Wall of Constantine, when it crossed the Seventh Hill, passed very close to the Isa Kapoussi Mesdjidi mosque. This matches the previous conclusion about the location of the Exokionion district. The column outside the Ancient Gate was likely the same one that gave its name to the district. A column bearing a statue of the city’s founder, Constantine, would have been perfectly placed in front of this grand entrance.

In summary, the Ancient Gate of Constantine, also known as Isa Kapoussi, played an important role in the history of Constantinople. The gate stood for almost 1900 years before being destroyed by an earthquake in 1508. Today, the name Isa Kapoussi still lives on through the mosque and street nearby, marking the former location of this impressive structure.

The Exokionion and the Seventh Hill

The district on the Seventh Hill, located to the west of Avret Bazaar (the Forum of Arcadius) and next to the Cistern of Mokius, still carries the name Exokionion today, though in a Turkish form. The district is known as Alti Mermer, meaning “The Six Columns”. This is a Turkish adaptation of the Byzantine name Hexakionion, which was a common name for the Exokionion. Therefore, it’s clear that the Exokionion was situated on the Seventh Hill. The Wall of Constantine passed through this hill, just east of the Alti Mermer area.

The Ancient Gate of the Forerunner

The next important landmark in identifying the location of Constantine’s wall is the Ancient Gate of the Forerunner (also called the Ancient Gate). This gate provided a key reference for the position of the wall. It was part of the original fortifications of the city and outlasted many other structures, similar to how Temple Bar survived after the wall of London was gone. The gate became known as the Ancient Gate because of its great age Sofia Guided Tours.

The name Ancient Gate of the Forerunner comes from the fact that a church dedicated to John the Baptist (the Forerunner) was built next to the gate. The church was called the Church of the Forerunner at the Ancient Gate.

Description of the Ancient Gate

The Ancient Gate was described by Manuel Chrysolaras as one of the most impressive monuments in the city. It was located to the west of the Forum of Arcadius. The gate was so wide and tall that a tower or even a full-rigged ship could pass through its entrance. This highlights the grandeur of the gate and its importance in the city’s history.

In summary, the Exokionion was located on the Seventh Hill, and the Wall of Constantine passed through this area. The Ancient Gate of the Forerunner provided an important landmark that helped determine the position of the wall. This gate, along with the church dedicated to John the Baptist, played a significant role in the history of Constantinople.

The Soulou Monastery and Its History

The Soulou Monastery, originally founded by Romanus Argyrus, was one of the most important monastic establishments in Constantinople. The monastery’s church survived the Turkish conquest and remained under Greek control until 1643, when Sultan Ibrahim handed it over to the Armenian community. Since then, the church has been destroyed by fire twice. Today, it has been rebuilt and is known as St. George Church. The church is often called Soulou Monastir (the Water Monastery) because it is located next to an ancient cistern. It stands in the Psamathia district, at the southern slope of the Seventh Hill.

The Xerolophos and the Forum of Arcadius

The Xerolophos was the name of the Seventh Hill in general, but it was sometimes used to refer specifically to the Forum of Arcadius (which is located in Avret Bazaar). The forum was located at the summit of the Seventh Hill.

Location of the Exokionion

Based on this information, the Exokionion must have been situated between the Sigma and the Forum of Arcadius, occupying the upper western slope of the Seventh Hill Sofia Guided Tours.

Additional Evidence for the Location of the Exokionion

There are a few more pieces of evidence that support this conclusion. First, the Church of St. Mokius, which was used by the Arians for their religious services in the Exokionion, stood on the Seventh Hill. The church was located on the road that connected the Sigma to the Forum of Arcadius. Additionally, the church was close to a large ancient cistern known as the Tchoukour Bostan, which was located to the north-west of the Forum.

In summary, the Exokionion was a district on the Seventh Hill, between the Sigma and the Forum of Arcadius. It was a significant area in the early history of Constantinople, particularly in connection with the Arians and their religious services. The church of St. Mokius and the nearby cistern provide further evidence for the district’s location.

The Exokionion District and Its Significance

The Exokionion (Greek: Ἐξοκίωνιον) was a district located just outside the Constantinian Wall. It got its name from a column in the area that had a statue of the founder of the city. Due to a change in the name over time, this area was also called the Ilxeakionion (Greek: Ἐξοκίωνιον).

The Exokionion in Ecclesiastical History

In ecclesiastical history, the Exokionion is especially important because it became known as the place where Arians were allowed to hold religious services. This happened when Theodosius the Great, who supported orthodox Christianity, banned heretical worship within the city. As a result, the Arians and the people of the Exokionion were often considered synonymous. Over time, this district became a popular area, with many fine churches and luxurious homes Sofia Guided Tours.

Different Views on the Location of the Exokionion

Many people have had different opinions on where exactly the Exokionion was located. The historian Gyllius thought it was on the Fifth Hill. He based his view on the fact that when he visited the city, he found a noble column on that hill, about half a mile northwest of the Mosque of Sultan Mehmed.

However, Dr. Mordtmann argued that the name Exokionion referred to the area along the entire line of the Constantinian land fortifications, not just one specific location.

Correct Location of the Exokionion

The evidence, however, points to the Seventh Hill as the actual location of the Exokionion. In the historical account of the triumphal entry of Basil I. through the Golden Gate of the Theodosian Walls, the Exokionion is mentioned as being situated between two areas: the Sigma and the Xerolophos.

The Sigma is significant in the history of the sedition that led to the overthrow of Michael V. in 1042. The Sigma is described as being above the Monastery of St. Mary Peribleptos. This location of the monastery is well-known, helping to place the Exokionion on the Seventh Hill.

In conclusion, the Exokionion was a historically important area outside the city walls, known for its association with the Arian religious practices and as a later fashionable part of the city. Despite various theories, the evidence seems to point to the Seventh Hill as the true location of this district.

The Dimensions and Boundaries of Constantine’s City

The length of the original city of Constantine was measured from the Porta Aurea in the west to the sea in the east. However, there is a disagreement about which gate was referred to as the Porta Aurea. Despite this, we can be sure that the eastern end of the city’s measurement was at the head of the promontory. This location marked the full length of the city.

Measuring the Length of the City

If we start at the head of the promontory and measure 14,075 Roman feet westwards, we will find that this brings us to the Cisterns of Mokius and Aspar. This matches the measurements given by Zosimus. Therefore, this confirms that the head of the promontory is the correct starting point for the city’s length.

Measuring the Width of the City

Next, we look at the width of the city. A line of 6,150 Roman feet from sea to sea will stretch across a specific part of the promontory. This area lies between the Daoud Pasha Kapoussi district near the Sea of Marmora in the south, and the Stamboul side of the inner bridge in the north. Other parts of the promontory are either narrower or broader. Thus, the southern and northern ends of Constantine’s city wall marked the limits of the city as described Sofia Guided Tours.

The Landmarks Along Constantine’s Wall

Byzantine writers give us details about the locations and structures along Constantine’s wall:

On the Sea of Marmora side, the wall extended as far west as the Gate of St. Emilianus (now Daoud Pasha Kapoussi) and the church of St. Mary Rhabdou. This gate is near Vlanga Bostan.

When the wall crossed from the Sea of Marmora to the Golden Horn, it passed over the Seventh, Fourth, and Fifth Hills. Along this path, the fortifications passed by several important landmarks:

The Exokionion (an ancient gate)

The Monastery of St. Dius

The Convent of Icasia

The Cistern of Bonus

The Church of SS. Manuel, Sabel, and Ishmael

The Zeugma (Ferry) of St. Antony in the district of Harmatius, near the harbour

Other important sites along the wall included the Trojan Porticoes and the Cistern of Aspar.

The Boundaries of the City

From the measurements and landmarks described by ancient writers, we can conclude that the city of Constantine had clearly defined boundaries, marked by gates, churches, monasteries, and other significant structures. These structures not only served as defensive elements but also reflected the growth and development of the city during Constantine’s reign.

Where Did the Wall Reach the Sea

The exact spot where the city wall met the Sea of Marmora, directly across from Chrysopolis (modern-day Üsküdar), is not clearly stated in ancient sources. However, it was likely very close to the present-day Seraglio Lighthouse. This area offers the easiest downward path from the Temple of Aphrodite to the shore, because of a natural break in the steep slope of the First Hill.

This suggests that the wall built by Emperor Septimius Severus mostly followed the same path as the older wall that he had destroyed. This idea is supported by comparing the landscape outside the wall built by Severus—the valley of the Grand Bazaar—with the description of the land beyond the earlier fortifications. That area was described as smooth and sloping gradually to the water, just like the current landscape.

A Landscape Suited for Defense

An ancient writer described the ground like this:

“The first space beyond the city walls was a smooth plain, gently sloping down to the sea, keeping the city from being an island.”

This description matches the valley of the Grand Bazaar, showing that the wall Severus rebuilt likely stood on the same line as the earlier one.

Inside Byzantium After Severus’ Restoration

After Severus restored Byzantium, the city began to grow and change. It became more structured and featured many new public buildings. These included places for entertainment, bathing, and gathering.

One of the most important constructions was the Hippodrome, a massive stadium for chariot races and public events. Although Severus began building it, he had to leave for the West before finishing the project. Later, Constantine the Great would complete and expand it.

The Tetrastoon and the Baths of Zeuxippus

Between the northern end of the Hippodrome and the future location of Hagia Sophia was an open square called the Tetrastoon. This was a public plaza, surrounded on all four sides by covered walkways (porticoes). On the southern edge of the Tetrastoon stood the Thermae of Zeuxippus, or the Baths of Zeuxippus, one of the most famous bathing complexes in the city.

These public places became the heart of the restored city, where people gathered to socialize, relax, and enjoy the cultural life of Byzantium Sofia Sightseeing.

In conclusion, Severus’ wall closely followed the path of the earlier fortifications, and the geography supports this. After rebuilding the city, Severus added important public buildings like the Hippodrome and the Baths of Zeuxippus, laying the groundwork for what would soon become Constantinople, one of the greatest cities in history.

The Path of the Ancient City Walls

After passing the main city gate, the ancient wall went down the northern slope of the hill towards the Neorion, which was an important harbor of Byzantium. From there, the wall turned eastward, continuing all the way to the tip of the promontory, the landmass that juts out into the sea.

While descending toward the Golden Horn, the wall likely followed the eastern bank of the valley near what is now known as the Grand Bazaar. This path would have taken advantage of a natural steep slope (called an escarpment), making it harder for enemies to attack the city from that side.

The Wall Facing the Sea of Marmora

On the side of the city facing the Sea of Marmora, the wall continued from the main city gate toward the Temple of Aphrodite, and then down to the shore across from Chrysopolis (modern-day Üsküdar). The Temple of Aphrodite, dedicated to the ancient Goddess of Beauty, was one of the oldest temples in Byzantium.

The temple stood until the reign of Emperor Theodosius the Great, who later converted it into a carriage house for the Praetorian Prefect, a high-ranking Roman officer. Because of its age and importance, the temple remained a well-known landmark for centuries Sofia Sightseeing.

The Temple’s Location and Surroundings

According to several ancient sources, the Temple of Aphrodite stood within the Acropolis, the high fortress area of Byzantium. It was said to be located higher on the hill than the nearby Temple of Poseidon, which was built near a theater facing the Sea of Marmora and also looked toward Chrysopolis.

From these references, we can understand that the Temple of Aphrodite was located to the northeast of where Hagia Sophia stands today, and likely not far from St. Irene, on what is now called the Seraglio Plateau.

A Fortress on a Hill

So, after leaving the western gate, the wall built by Emperor Severus did not go straight down to the sea. Instead, it turned southeast, rising along the steep slopes of the First Hill. Eventually, it reached the Seraglio Plateau.

These steep hills created a dramatic view of the city from the Sea of Marmora. The high slopes and strong walls made the city look like a huge fortress or Acropolis on a hill, giving it both natural defense and visual majesty.

Understanding the Location of Byzantium’s Ancient Gate

The historian Zosimus makes a statement that, when read alone, can be misunderstood. His words suggest that the ancient gate of Byzantium may have stood west of Constantine’s Forum. This would mean that the Forum was built east of the gate, inside the city walls built by Emperor Severus.

According to Zosimus, people entered the porticoes of Severus and exited the old city by passing through arches. These arches stood on the east and west sides of Constantine’s Forum. This layout would only make sense if, when moving from east to west, the structures were arranged as follows:

Constantine’s Forum

Porticoes of Severus

The old gate of Byzantium

If this were true, then when Zosimus said the Forum stood “where the gate had been,” he might have meant that the porticoes between the Forum and the gate were too short to be worth mentioning Sofia Daily Tours.

Conflicting Historical Sources

However, reading Zosimus in this way causes problems. It contradicts other historical sources:

Theophanes, a later historian, provides a different account that doesn’t support Zosimus’s version.

Hesychius of Miletus clearly states that the wall of Byzantium did not extend beyond the Forum of Constantine. In his words, the wall reached “not beyond the emperor’s market” (Forum).

Even though it is less critical, the Anonymus and Codinus also provide a different explanation. They say the circular shape of the Forum was inspired by the shape of Constantine’s tent when he laid siege to the city. This would place the Forum outside the old city walls.

Modern Scholars’ Interpretation

Modern scholars such as Lethaby and Swainson propose a clearer arrangement of the city’s layout. They place the Forum of Constantine directly between the porticoes of Severus on the east and the ancient gate of Byzantium on the west. According to their interpretation:

The western arch of the Forum stood on the site of the old gate.

A person inside the Forum could go east to enter the Severus porticoes, or west to exit the city through the old gate.

This explanation helps to align Zosimus’s account with the archaeological and historical evidence. It shows how Constantine restructured the city, using existing features like the Severan gate and adding monumental spaces such as his Forum.

A City of Layers

Constantinople (originally Byzantium) was a city shaped over centuries. Each emperor, including Severus and Constantine, left their mark by rebuilding, expanding, and adapting existing structures. The debates about the location of the ancient gate and the placement of the Forum show how deeply architecture and imperial ambition were linked in the making of this historic capital.

Doubts About the Earliest Wall

Some historians believe the account of an early city wall around Byzantium may be just a legend. It might have been based only on guesses, especially the idea that the Arch of Urbicius and the Arch of the Milion once marked the gates in an ancient wall. These structures could have given later writers the impression of an earlier, larger defense system.

However, it is very likely that early Byzantium was much smaller than it became later in history. In that case, the arches could indeed show where the first walls built outside the Acropolis once stood. This means the story may hold some truth, though it might not be entirely accurate Sofia Daily Tours.

The Third Line of Walls

We now move to the third and most significant set of walls that protected ancient Byzantium. These walls were responsible for making the city one of the greatest fortresses in the ancient world. According to historical sources, these walls enclosed a circuit of thirty-five stadia (about 6.5 kilometers), which included most of the land occupied by the First and Second Hills of the city.

Ports Along the Golden Horn

The walls ran along the Golden Horn, starting from the tip of the promontory and reaching the west side of the bay. This area is where the valley between the Second and Third Hills—now known as the Valley of the Grand Bazaar—meets the water.

This bay was a key center of trade and activity. It had three ports, which were either natural or man-made. These served the busy shipping industry of Byzantium. One of the best-known ports was at the Neorion, near today’s Bâğçe Kapısı.

Strong and Advanced Fortifications

The walls were famous in ancient times for their great strength. Builders used large, squared blocks of hard stone that were carefully fitted together. Metal clamps held the stones in place, making the walls so solid that they seemed like a continuous rock formation.

One of the towers was called the Tower of Hercules, named for its impressive size and durability. Seven other towers were believed to be so finely built that they could echo even the quietest sound, alerting soldiers to enemy movements and preventing surprise attacks.

Built After Victory Over the Persians?

The style of the construction suggests that these walls were likely built soon after Pausanias, the Greek general, defeated the Persians at Plataea and later drove them out of Byzantium. This period marks the beginning of Byzantium’s rise as a major defensive stronghold in the ancient world.

The Ridge and the Milion

The ridge of the promontory was the central line of high ground in ancient Constantinople. One of the most important landmarks on this ridge was the Milion, the milestone from which all distances in the Roman Empire were measured. It stood just southwest of Hagia Sophia (St. Sophia) and marked the location of an old gate of Byzantium. This area served as a key reference point in the layout and measurement of the ancient city.

Fortifications from the Milion

From the Milion, the ancient city wall continued toward the twisted columns of the Tzycalarii. Based on the direction of the wall, historians believe these columns were located on the plateau near St. Irene, another important Byzantine church. From there, the wall sloped downward to the Sea of Marmara, near today’s Seraglio Lighthouse at a place once called Topi.

After reaching the sea, the wall turned north and ran along the shoreline, encircling the tip of the historic peninsula. Along the way, it passed the areas where the Thermae of Arcadius (public baths) and the Mangana Palace complex were later built.

The Early Size of Byzantium

According to two Byzantine historians, Anonymus and Codinus, this wall described the full circuit of Byzantium from its original foundation by Byzas (the legendary founder) all the way to the reign of Constantine the Great. However, their claim is not entirely accurate. In fact, archaeological and historical evidence shows that Byzantium’s walls enclosed a much larger area than the circuit they describe, especially by the year 196 AD, and perhaps even earlier.

Therefore, their description of the city’s size likely refers only to a very early stage in Byzantium’s history—possibly before it grew into an important regional and imperial center.

Strategic Locations Near the Wall

Historical sources help us locate certain buildings that once stood along this early wall. For example, the Strategion, a military training field like a parade ground, was located at the foot of the Second Hill, close to today’s Sirkeci Station. It was near the granaries by the Prosphorion Harbor, which were close to the Neorion (Bâb-ı Ali Gate)—a site once destroyed by fire Sofia Daily Tours.

Nearby was the Chalcoprateia, or Brass Market, situated close to the Great Basilica and the Yerebatan Cistern (Basilica Cistern), which still exists today. These landmarks help us better understand how the ancient wall of Byzantium shaped the life, trade, and defense of the city.

Escape to the Fortress

When Xenophon’s soldiers re-entered Byzantium, they blocked access to the Acropolis from inside the city. As a result, Anaxibius, the Spartan commander, could not reach the fortress by land. Instead, he had to board a fishing boat in the harbor and sail around the point of the promontory to reach the eastern side of the city, opposite Chalcedon (modern-day Kadıköy). From there, he also sent a request to Chalcedon for military reinforcements.

These movements strongly suggest that the Acropolis, the ancient stronghold of Byzantium, was located at the eastern tip of the promontory, near what is today Seraglio Point Sofia Daily Tours.

Discovery of an Ancient Wall

In 1871, during excavations for the Roumelian railway, workers uncovered an ancient wall just south of Seraglio Point. The wall ran east to west and was made from massive stone blocks—some over 7 feet long, nearly 4 feet wide, and 2 feet thick. Due to its size and location, scholars believe it was part of the original fortifications around the Acropolis. This wall gives physical proof of how well the ancient city was protected.

The Second City Wall

The second circuit of walls surrounding Byzantium was described by Anonymus in the 11th century and by the historian Codinus. According to their writings, the wall began at the Tower of the Acropolis, located at the tip of the promontory, and extended westward along the Golden Horn. It reached the Tower of Eugenius, likely near the Yali Kiosk Gate (Yalı Köşkü Kapısı).

From there, the wall turned inland toward the Strategion, which was the city’s military parade ground—similar to the Champ de Mars in Paris. This area stretched across the plain at the foot of the Second Hill, between the Yali Kiosk Gate and the modern-day Sirkeci Train Station.

The Baths of Achilles and Brass Market

Near the Strategion stood the Thermae of Achilles, or the Baths of Achilles, a public bathhouse popular in the ancient city. A city gate once stood there as well and was later known as the Arch of Urbicius.

From that point, the wall climbed the slope up to the Chalcoprateia, or Brass Market, which was one of Byzantium’s major trading centers. This market extended from the area now occupied by the Sublime Porte (the Ottoman imperial gate) to the region of Yerebatan Sarayı—today’s Basilica Cistern, one of the most visited sites in modern Istanbul.

Constantine’s Brilliant Decision

Dean Stanley once said that choosing the site for Constantinople was the clearest and strongest sign of Emperor Constantine’s genius. This one act had a lasting effect on the history of the world. It turned a small city into one of the most important capitals in history. Though this article will not go deeply into the early geography of Byzantium before Constantine, we will look at how its defenses grew over time. These changes show how a city founded by Greek settlers became the grand center of the Roman and later Byzantine Empires.

The Expanding Walls of the City

Constantinople grew in stages, with each new wall adding more land and protection. Over time, the city expanded far beyond its original size. There were four main phases of wall-building that shaped the city’s boundaries Sofia Daily Tours.

The First Wall The Acropolis of Byzantium

The earliest defenses were built to protect the Acropolis of Byzantium. This was the heart of the original Greek colony, and it stood on the high ground at the eastern tip of the First Hill, where the Seraglio Point is today. The remains of this ancient fort can still be seen. Some of the surviving walls are from Byzantine times, while others were rebuilt or repaired by the Ottomans.

Today, the area is home to important buildings such as:

The Imperial Museum

The Kiosk of Sultan Abdul Medjid

The Imperial Kitchens

Why This Spot Was Chosen

This area was a natural fortress. The land rises sharply above the sea, making it easy to defend from all sides. In ancient times, cities were often built around a strong center like this—called an acropolis, meaning “high city” in Greek.

The importance of the Acropolis is confirmed by ancient sources. For example, Xenophon, a Greek historian and soldier, tells a story in his book Anabasis about how the Ten Thousand Greek soldiers returned from Persia and entered Byzantium. When they entered through the western gates, the Spartan commander Anaxibius had to flee and take shelter in the Acropolis. This proves that the Acropolis was the strongest part of the city, even back then.

A Small Colony That Became a Capital

Originally, Byzantium was just a small Greek colony founded by people from Megara. But over time, thanks to its excellent location and strong defenses, it became the capital of an empire. Constantine’s decision to move the Roman capital here changed world history. The layers of walls built over time reflect the city’s growth, power, and long-standing importance.

A Perfect Place for a Great City

Constantinople was built in one of the most beautiful and strategic places in the world. The natural setting alone made it a perfect location for a great city. Surrounded by sea and land routes, it had both beauty and power. But to understand the true importance of Constantinople, we must look closely at its geography.

Geography and History Go Hand in Hand

The story of Constantinople cannot be told without understanding its unique location. No other city in the world owes more to its position. Its strength, long life, and influence all came from the land and sea around it.

Geography had a huge impact on the city’s history. Constantinople was both deeply connected to the world and yet easy to defend. It could open its doors to trade and ideas from across the continents, or it could shut them tight against its enemies Sofia City Tour.

At the Crossroads of Continents

Constantinople stands where Europe and Asia nearly touch. The narrow strip of water between them, only about half a mile wide, is the Bosporus Strait. The city is right at this crossing point.

It is also where several major waterways come together:

The Mediterranean Sea reaches up through the Aegean Sea and Sea of Marmara from the south.

The Black Sea (once called the Euxine) and the Sea of Azov open routes to the north.

This location made Constantinople a center for trade, politics, and culture. Rich and powerful regions surrounded it, and goods from three continents could flow through its markets.

Easy to Defend, Hard to Attack

Constantinople’s geography also made it easy to protect. Enemies coming by sea had to pass through narrow straits:

The Dardanelles (or Hellespont) from the Aegean

The Bosporus from the Black Sea

These narrow channels could be guarded with ships and forts. Enemy fleets found it nearly impossible to sneak through.

On land, the city stood on a narrow strip of land, easy to wall off. Strong defenses along the western side of the city could stop even large armies. A small but well-prepared group of soldiers could hold back thousands.

A City in the World—And Above It

Constantinople was both in the world and apart from it. It welcomed trade, wealth, and culture, yet it could close itself off in times of danger. This rare combination made it one of the most powerful and long-lasting cities in history.

The Seven Hills of Constantinople

Landmarks, Mosques, and History

Constantinople, like ancient Rome, was built on seven hills, each rich with history and remarkable landmarks. These hills rise and fall across the old city, giving it a dramatic landscape. Here’s a simple guide to each of the hills, their locations, and what you can find on them today or in historical records.

The First Hill

Home of the Empire’s Greatest Buildings

The First Hill is located closest to the tip of the promontory, where the land juts into the sea. This area contains some of the most important historical landmarks:

The Seraglio (Topkapi Palace), the grand palace of the Ottoman sultans

The ancient church of St. Irene

The world-famous Hagia Sophia (St. Sophia)

The Hippodrome, once the center of sports and public life in Byzantine Constantinople

This hill marked the heart of imperial and religious life for centuries.

The Second Hill

The Burnt Column and Byzantine Memories

Separated from the First Hill by a valley running from Hagia Sophia to the Golden Horn, the Second Hill is known for:

The Column of Constantine the Great, a massive porphyry monument

Locally called the Burnt Column or Çemberlitaş

This column was a symbol of Constantine’s founding of the city as the “New Rome Sofia City Tour.”

The Third Hill

Mosques and Government Buildings

Divided from the Second Hill by the valley of the Grand Bazaar, the Third Hill is known for:

The War Office and Fire-Signal Tower

The Mosque of Sultan Bayezid II

The grand Mosque of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent

This hill became a central part of Ottoman administrative and religious life.

The Fourth Hill

Home of the Conqueror’s Mosque

Set farther from the shoreline than the previous three, the Fourth Hill is divided from the Third by a valley running from the Valens Aqueduct to the Golden Horn. At its top sits:

The Mosque of Sultan Mehmed II, also known as Fatih Camii, built by the conqueror of Constantinople

The Fifth Hill

Steep Ridge Overlooking the Golden Horn

The Fifth Hill is actually a steep ridge extending from the Fourth Hill almost to the water, in the Phanar district. On its summit:

Stands the Mosque of Sultan Selim

This hill rises sharply above a broad plain that lies between the Third and Fourth Hills.

The Sixth Hill

Ancient Palaces and Byzantine Legacy

Separated from the Fifth Hill by a valley leading from Balat Gate to the large Byzantine cistern called Tchoukour Bostan, the Sixth Hill is historically significant for:

The ruins of the Palace of the Porphyrogenitus (Tekfur Sarayı)

The district of Eğri Kapı

The famous Blachernae Palace, mentioned by the historian Nicetas Choniates

The Seventh Hill

The Dry Hill of the Southwest

The Seventh Hill lies in the southwestern corner of the city. Known in ancient times as Xerolophos, or “The Dry Hill”, due to its poor soil. This hill features:

The Avret Bazaar

The remains of the Column of Arcadius

The neighborhoods of Altımermer and Psamathia

A City of Layers and Heights

These seven hills gave Constantinople its distinctive shape and character. Each hill played a unique role in the history of Byzantium and later the Ottoman Empire. Exploring them means walking through centuries of culture, religion, and imperial power.

The Shape and Size of the Promontory

A Natural Fortress by the Sea

The land on which Constantinople was built is known as a promontory—a piece of land that extends into the water. Although its actual shape is more like a trapezium (a four-sided figure with uneven sides), it is often described as a triangle. This is because the eastern side of the land is shorter than the others, giving it a triangular appearance.

The promontory stretches about four miles in length and varies in width from one to four miles. The ground is not flat. Instead, it is a mix of hills, ridges, valleys, and plains, which gave the ancient city a natural defense and a unique beauty Sofia City Tour.

The Hills of New Rome

A City Built on Seven Hills

The land rises to a height of about 250 feet at its tallest points. The higher parts are grouped into two main areas:

A large, isolated hill located at the southwestern corner of the promontory.

A long ridge that runs along the Golden Horn on the northern side.

This ridge is not continuous but is divided into six smaller hills by five cross-valleys. These valleys cut through the ridge, making each hill seem like a separate piece of high ground.

Because of this landscape, Constantinople, often called New Rome, proudly claimed to be built on seven hills, just like the original Rome beside the Tiber River in Italy. These seven hills became one of the most iconic symbols of the city.

Valleys and Waterways

The Lycus River and Surrounding Plains

Between the two high areas of the city lies a broad meadow, through which the Lycus River flows. This river crosses the promontory and empties into the Sea of Marmara on the southern side. This fertile valley was important for both water supply and city planning.

In addition to this meadow, there are also flat lands along the coastlines of the promontory and in the valleys between the northern hills. These areas were likely used for homes, gardens, and marketplaces in ancient times.

How the Hills Are Named

A Practical Numbering System

Most of the hills in Constantinople do not have individual names. Instead of using traditional names, historians and local guides usually number the hills from one to seven for easy reference. This system helps people understand where important buildings and landmarks were located in the ancient city.

A City Shaped by Nature and History

Constantinople’s natural landscape played a huge role in its strategic power, defensive strength, and architectural beauty. Built on hills, near rivers, and surrounded by water, it became one of the greatest cities of the ancient and medieval world. Its unique geography made it the perfect setting for emperors, armies, and empires to rise and fall.

The Location of Constantinople

Understanding the Geography of a Historic City

This article offers a simple overview of the land on which Constantinople was built. While we won’t go into the deep details found in works like that of Petrus Gyllius, it is still important to understand the basic geography before exploring the ruins of what was once called New Rome.

Constantinople lies at the southwestern end of the Bosporus Strait, a narrow waterway that connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara. The city was built on a promontory, a piece of land that juts out into the water from the European side of the strait. The tip of this land faces upstream, as if trying to hold back the strong current flowing from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara Sofia City Tour.

Natural Borders and Surroundings

The Golden Horn, the Sea of Marmara, and Asia

To the north of the city lies a long and narrow bay called the Golden Horn. This bay stretches inland between steep banks for about six to seven miles. In ancient times, it was one of the best natural harbors in the world, offering safe and deep water for ships.

To the south, the Sea of Marmara opens up wide like a lake. On the Asian side of this sea, you can see hills, mountains, and small islands. Directly across from the eastern side of the city’s promontory are the historic towns of Chrysopolis (modern Üsküdar) and Chalcedon (modern Kadıköy), both located in present-day Istanbul on the Asian side.

The Western Landscape

A Plain with a Rich Past

To the west of Constantinople, the land becomes a gently rolling plain. Although it does not offer much in terms of striking natural beauty today, in the glory days of the Byzantine Empire, this area was full of villas, gardens, and beautiful homes. It must have been a peaceful and elegant part of the city’s surroundings.

The western plain stretches out toward the horizon and served as the main land route into the city. Over centuries, this land witnessed countless armies, traders, and pilgrims entering Constantinople.

A City Built to Control Land and Sea

Constantinople’s unique position gave it great strategic and commercial importance. It controlled the water route between two seas and stood at the crossroads of Europe and Asia. Surrounded by natural barriers like the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara, and facing rich and ancient cities across the strait, the site was perfectly chosen for what would become one of the greatest cities in world history.

The Social and Economic Role of Construction Materials in Roman Asia

Not Carved in Stone The Impact of Material Choices

In Roman Asia, many public buildings were not funded by the government but instead by private donors. These wealthy individuals paid for the construction of important buildings to improve their social status and gain respect in the community. Public buildings, or private structures that allowed access to high-ranking citizens, served as a symbol of power and prestige Sofia City Tour.

These projects did more than just change how the city looked. They had a strong economic impact. Many people worked on these buildings, from laborers and craftsmen to suppliers and decorators. The construction work provided income to the local population and influenced the city’s economic activities.

Cost-Saving Methods with Decorative Facades

One important technique used during this period was revetment. This means builders used cheaper materials like rubble, brick, or stone in the inner structure and covered them with a thin layer of expensive decoration, like marble or carved stone.

This allowed donors to save money by using affordable resources from nearby areas or those that were easier to collect and transport. Even though the building looked rich and grand from the outside, the hidden materials helped keep costs low.

However, using less labor-intensive materials reduced the total construction time, which in turn reduced the number of workdays. This may have meant less income for workers, creating economic disadvantages for laborers who depended on longer construction periods.

Analyzing the Impact on Society

Using calculation methods first developed by Janet Delaine, this study looks at how different materials (stone, brick, rubble) impacted local societies. The use of cheaper construction methods allowed donors to show off their generosity while spending less money, but it may also have limited the economic benefits for those who worked on these projects.

The Water Storage Systems of Byzantine Constantinople

Design and Construction of the Byzantine Cisterns

Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, was located on a peninsula with few natural water sources. To solve this problem, the city developed a complex system of aqueducts and cisterns.

As early as the 2nd century, long-distance water supply lines were built to meet the needs of the earlier city of Byzantion. When Constantinople became the capital in the 4th century, water was brought from Thrace using the Valens Aqueduct, an impressive engineering feat.

Building and Expanding the Cistern Network

This water was stored inside the city in large open-air reservoirs and underground cisterns. Starting from the 5th and 6th centuries, more and more subterranean cisterns were built. These usually had two or four rows of columns supporting the roofs.

These cisterns were carefully planned and built with strong architectural techniques. They provided a reliable water source in case of siege or drought and became an essential part of the city’s infrastructure.

The Most Common Byzantine Building Type

Over the centuries, these cisterns were constructed regularly as the city expanded. Today, they represent the most common type of surviving Byzantine building in Istanbul. Their practical design and durability make them an outstanding example of Byzantine engineering.

Key Research Questions in Ancient Construction

Understanding Costs, Time, and Renovation in Pergamon Houses

This research aims to answer several important questions about residential construction in ancient Pergamon:

How expensive was it to extract, collect, and move building materials?

How long did the different construction phases take?

Can we estimate the costs of later renovations and building changes?

By applying the method of architectural energetics, we hope to calculate the labor, time, and resources needed for building homes. This helps us understand the economic and social organization behind housing projects in ancient Pergamon. It also gives us clues about how people lived, how resources were managed, and how labor was distributed in a well-developed urban area Sofia City Tour.

Marble Use in Roman Miletus

How Geology, Environment, and Architecture Were Connected

Another part of this study focuses on the marble trade and usage in Roman Imperial Miletus, a key city in ancient Asia Minor. This research is part of the DFG-funded project “Marble Dynamics in Roman Imperial Miletus” (TO1102/1-1). The main goal is to understand how natural marble resources, landscape changes, and the need for construction materials influenced the city’s development.

Research Materials and Methods

The study is based on 440 samples, including:

194 geological samples taken from ancient marble quarries across the region (e.g., Miletus, Herakleia, Myus, Euromos, Magnesia, and Priene).

236 archaeological marble samples, collected from previous projects like the Didyma Temple of Apollo and buildings such as the Theater, Faustina Baths, and Serapeion in Miletus.

Key Findings

Local marble was used more than previously believed throughout antiquity.

The area known as Miletus West was probably the city’s first active quarry site. It may correspond to the Ioniapolis quarries, which are mentioned in early records from the Didyma Temple.

On the other hand, Herakleotic (Latmian) marble, which came from near Herakleia under Latmos, seems to have played a minor role in the city’s construction. Although it was once thought to have been important across the region during Hellenistic and Roman times, the evidence now shows that its interregional significance was likely overstated.

Insights from the Study

These results provide a better understanding of how resource availability, environmental changes, and urban demands shaped building practices in Roman Miletus. They also show that cities like Miletus relied mostly on nearby quarries and local materials, rather than importing stone from distant regions. This knowledge helps archaeologists and historians better understand the economic and environmental planning of ancient cities.

Interconnected Craftsmanship in Lime Production

How Ancient Industries Worked Together in Late Roman Times

In this study, we argue that several stages of lime production in the Late Roman period show strong connections between different industries. These stages were not isolated but depended on a wide network of materials, skills, and cooperation. We focus on three main points in the process where this interdependence becomes clear:

1. Raw Material Collection and Recycling

The first step in lime production was collecting raw materials. Archaeological findings show that different industries often worked together at this stage. For example, in many sites, we see materials like stone, metals, and ceramics being reused. These materials were processed using different techniques, such as limeburning, stone cutting, or metal smelting. This shows a system of multicraft production, where tools and raw materials were shared across trades.

2. Mixing Lime with Additives

After the lime was burned, it had to be slaked and mixed to make mortar. This mixture included additive materials from other industries. For instance:

Shells from dye workshops were reused Sofia City Tour.

Ash and fired clay came from pottery production.

These additives changed the strength and texture of the mortar, and their use required knowledge from both chemistry and craft traditions. It also required cooperation between industries to share resources.

3. Composite Architecture Using Recycled Materials

Buildings from this time often used bricolage architecture, which means they were made from a mix of new and reused materials. Builders used old bricks and stones alongside new ones, binding everything together with rich mortar. These construction methods reflect the creative reuse of resources and knowledge of how different materials worked together.

These three stages—raw material collection, mixing, and building—depended on:

Shared supply chains

Skilled labor cooperation

Knowledge exchange

All these elements show how local Late Roman economies operated through complex relationships between industries.

Economic Insights from Pergamene Houses

Construction Costs and Labor in Ancient Pergamon

Between 1973 and 1999, researchers carried out urban excavations on the city hill of Pergamon. Their aim was to explore how people lived in the residential areas of the city.

Based on this research, architectural historian Ulrike Wulf-Rheidt documented the structures found in the so-called Stadtgrabung (City Excavation) and described the typical design and layout of Pergamene houses. One of the most well-known examples is the Attalos House.

The current study builds on Wulf-Rheidt’s work by applying a method called architectural energetics. This method tries to calculate the effort, cost, and time required to build these houses. It looks beyond what can be seen and tries to reconstruct:

How many people worked on the construction

How long the work took

What resources were needed

By studying these factors, we can better understand the economic and social background of residential life in ancient Pergamon. It helps reveal how much energy and planning went into building even ordinary homes, which reflects on resource management and labor organization in that historical period.

Understanding the Construction of the Octagon

A Window into Politics and Society of Ancient Pergamon

The construction of the Octagon in ancient Pergamon offers a valuable opportunity to explore the political, social, and economic environment of the time. By looking at how and where it was built, we can better understand the priorities and abilities of the society that created it.

The first step in this investigation is a thorough study of the construction site. Several key aspects need to be considered:

Location and Topography

Researchers need to examine why this site was chosen. Was it close to resources such as stone, water, or roads? Did the topography—meaning the shape and slope of the land—support easy construction and transportation?

Construction Challenges and Techniques

The builders of the Octagon may have faced serious structural challenges. To overcome these, they likely used innovative building methods. Understanding these techniques helps us learn about the engineering knowledge of the time Sofia City Tour.

Workforce and Time Estimations

How many workers were needed? How long would construction have taken? Estimating this helps us measure the scale of the project and its economic impact.

The goal of this research is not to provide final answers from limited data, but rather to start a discussion. It encourages new ways of thinking about the organization of ancient construction, while connecting to the broader topics of this academic network.

Bound by Binders

Lime Production and Its Role in Late Roman Industry

By Elizabeth Murphy & Riley Snyder, Florida State University

In the Late Roman period (4th to 7th centuries AD), lime was an important material used in many different ways. It was not only essential for construction, especially in making mortar, but also used in medicine, tanning leather, textile processing, funerals, and even farming as a fertilizer.

Because of its many uses, lime kilns and slaking pits (where lime was cooled with water) are commonly found in archaeological sites from this era. These facilities appear in both cities and countryside, and were used by both public institutions and private businesses.

This research focuses on Asia Minor, where many lime production sites have been found. The paper takes a close look at how lime mortar was made and how this process—known as a chaine opératoire (a step-by-step production sequence)—connected different industries.

For example

Builders needed lime for construction.

Farmers used it for soil treatment.

Tanners used lime in processing hides.

Textile workers needed it for cleaning cloth.

This means lime production was not a stand-alone process. It was part of a larger network of industries, all depending on each other. These interconnected systems show how advanced and efficient economic organization was in the Late Roman world.

Research at the Pergamon Amphitheater

Research at the Pergamon Amphitheater (2018–2021)

Understanding Ancient Construction and Its Environmental Impact

Between 2018 and 2021, researchers carried out archaeological and historical building studies at the Amphitheater of Pergamon. One of the most important results was the discovery of different construction phases of the amphitheater. By carefully studying the building remains, experts could understand how the structure changed over time Sofia City Tour.

This research also helps us learn how the landscape was transformed during and after the construction process. By studying the location and the methods used to extract stone and other resources, researchers can better understand how construction affected the environment.

Interestingly, since the amphitheater was only used as a performance venue and did not go through many later changes, it gives us a rare chance to estimate the total amount of building material used. This makes it a very valuable case study in ancient building economy and engineering.

Rebuilding the Dionysos Temple

Construction Techniques and Social Context By Annika Zeitler

The ancient Dionysos Temple in Pergamon, from the Hellenistic period, shows clear signs of early reuse. It appears that the temple was taken apart and rebuilt in nearly the same way, but possibly with shortened or modified parts.

This process brings up important social and economic questions. What kind of workforce was needed to do this? What were the skills of the craftsmen involved? What kind of planning was required on the building site?

By studying the reused stones and construction techniques, we can gain insight into the organization of ancient construction projects, how resources were managed, and how society worked together to complete complex architectural tasks. It also helps us understand how the ecological system was taken into account during large building efforts.

The “Octagon” of Pergamon

A Monumental Project Outside the City Walls By Seçil Tezer Altay

On the lower slopes of the Pergamon hill, a new monumental building—called the “Octagon”—was planned. It was located outside the old city walls, facing what was then considered the modern part of Pergamon, which was growing toward the Kaikos River plain.

At this time, the ancient hilltop city had already been crowned with a large marble temple, while the new parts of the city were being filled with impressive public buildings. Nearby, on another hilltop, a rich residential area was also developing, with a perfect view of both the ancient city and the green valley below.

This setting helps us understand the urban planning of Pergamon, and how different parts of the city—old and new—were visually and functionally connected. The Octagon represents not only an architectural effort but also a symbol of change, showing how Pergamon grew into a modern city during ancient times.

Research on the Roman Baths and Amphitheater of Pergamon

By Lea Geisler, Hüseyin Çınarlık, and Neele Menter

Technical University of Berlin, Institute of Architecture, Department of Historic Building Research and Monument Preservation

Exploring Ancient Roman Architecture in Pergamon

In recent years, students and researchers from the Technical University of Berlin have been working on the Roman-era buildings of Pergamon, an ancient city in present-day Türkiye. This work is part of the TransPergMicro project, led by the German Archaeological Institute in Istanbul (DAI).

The research focuses on the Upper Gymnasion Terrace, where two large bath complexes—the East and West Baths—have been studied. These buildings are valuable for understanding Roman construction technology, building materials, and construction methods Sofia City Tour.

Construction Methods and Building Phases

The study closely examines how these baths were built. By analyzing the types of stones, bricks, mortar, and other materials used, the researchers can trace the steps of construction. This also helps them understand the different phases of construction.

Some parts of the buildings were built in earlier times, while others were added later. The way the walls were layered and the materials used give important clues about how the construction process was managed.

The Relationship Between Building and Nature

Another focus of the study is the connection between the buildings and the landscape. The East and West Baths were built on a high terrace overlooking Pergamon, and the builders had to adapt to the hilly terrain. The team also investigates how much stone and other natural resources were used, where they were taken from, and how they were transported. This helps us understand the economic and environmental impact of building large structures in ancient times.

The Amphitheater of Pergamon A Rare and Impressive Structure

One of the most important and rare buildings in Pergamon is its Amphitheater. Amphitheaters were a unique Roman invention and are symbols of Roman culture and architecture. Surprisingly, only a few have been found in Anatolia (modern-day Türkiye).

In addition to Pergamon, the only known amphitheaters in this region are located in:

Kyzikos (near Erdek, Balıkesir)

Anazarbos (in Kozan, Adana)

Mastaura (in Nazilli, Aydın)

These buildings are not only architectural wonders, but they also show how the Romans used land and resources. The amphitheater of Pergamon stands out because of its large scale and strategic location, making it an excellent case for studying land use, material consumption, and urban planning during Roman times.

Budget Hotels in Sofia

Aris Hotel

Location: F-7, ul. Knyaz Boris 203
Contact: Tel: 931 31 77

Aris Hotel is a small and quiet hotel located on a leafy street. It is very close to Sofia’s main train and bus stations, which makes it perfect for travelers who need easy transport connections.

The hotel offers simple but comfortable rooms. The rooms have soft, relaxing colors and high ceilings that make the rooms feel open and airy. Each room includes a TV and a hairdryer for guests’ convenience.

If you are traveling with family or a group, the apartments with fold-down sofa beds are a great option. These provide extra space and comfort without costing too much.

Brod Hotel

Location: H-8, Simeonovsko Shose 66
Contact: Tel: 968 19 80

Brod Hotel is a suburban hotel recently built to offer excellent value for money. It is located on Simeonovsko Shose, a busy road on the outskirts of Sofia. Although this street is not the most exciting part of the city, the hotel itself is welcoming and comfortable Bulgaria Private Tour.

The rooms are nicely decorated in soft pastel colors mixed with warm terracotta tones. The “luxury” rooms include large bathtubs for relaxing baths, while standard rooms have simple shower units.

The staff at Brod Hotel are friendly and helpful. They will gladly tell you where to find local cafes, shops, and bus stops. Also, taxis from the hotel to the city center are affordable and convenient.

Park Hotel Vitosha

Location: H-8, ul. Rosario 1
Contact: Tel: 816 88 88

Park Hotel Vitosha is a brand new hotel designed in a modern Scandinavian style. The hotel uses light colors and natural wooden surfaces that create a fresh and calm atmosphere.

The rooms come with cooking facilities, which is great if you prefer to prepare your own meals. The hotel is also well equipped with wellness and spa amenities for guests who want to relax and enjoy some pampering.

Located in a peaceful park-like area on the southeastern edge of Sofia, Park Hotel Vitosha offers a quiet escape from the city’s busy streets.

Light Hotel

Location: A-3, ul. Veslets 37
Contact: Tel: 917 90 90

Light Hotel is a modern and stylish hotel located on a quiet, cobbled street. It feels peaceful and far away from the busy center of Sofia. The public areas, like the lobby and lounge, have a clean and modern design. However, the rooms offer a cozy, slightly old-fashioned feeling, which some guests may find charming.

There are different bathroom styles in the rooms—some have shower cabins, while others feature large, comfortable bathtubs. This makes the hotel a good choice whether you prefer quick showers or relaxing baths.

Lion Hotel

Location: A-3, bul. Maria Luiza 60
Contact: Tel: 917 84 00

Lion Hotel is set in a beautiful nineteenth-century building. It stands at a busy road intersection, halfway between Sofia’s train station and city center. If you get a room facing the street, you can watch the lively flow of people and cars below Bulgaria Private Tour.

The hotel has many unique architectural features. Some rooms have bay windows, while others have arched windows, giving a special character you won’t find in many other hotels. The decoration varies a lot: some rooms have soft yellow colors, while others have bright striped wallpaper.

Lozenetz Hotel

Location: E-3, bul. Sveti Naum 23
Contact: Tel: 965 44 44

Lozenetz Hotel is a modern building located in a quiet residential area just south of Sofia’s center. The rooms are bright and spacious, although some bathrooms can feel a little small.

One special feature is a small garden next to the restaurant, which is a nice place to relax after a busy day.

Meg Lozenetz Hotel

Location: D-3, ul. Krum Popov 84
Contact: Tel: 965 19 70

Meg Lozenetz is a mid-sized hotel in a residential area near the City Center Sofia shopping mall. The rooms have warm colors and thick carpets, creating a cozy atmosphere. Many rooms are not perfect rectangles but have interesting, irregular shapes which add character.

The hotel restaurant is decorated like a tropical garden, with wooden floors, rattan chairs, and many plants. There is even a large green parrot living there!

Triada Hotel

Location: G-8, ul. Venera 5
Contact: Tel: 970 67 67

Triada Hotel is a relatively new building with large, bright rooms. The rooms are decorated in soft shades of blue, creating a calm and relaxing atmosphere.

On the top floor, there is a sky bar with fantastic views of Sofia and the surrounding mountains, perfect for relaxing or meeting friends.

Triada Hotel also has excellent facilities for business meetings and seminars, making it popular with business travelers.

Diter Hotel

Location: C-3, ul. Han Asparuh 65
Contact: Tel: 989 89 98

Diter Hotel is located in a carefully restored nineteenth-century house on a quiet but very central street in Sofia. This makes it a real gem for travelers looking for comfort and charm in the city center.

The rooms are decorated in calm, mood-lifting colors like blues and oranges. Each room comes with a minibar, TV, and a safe to keep your belongings secure. A big plus is the large desk space, perfect for business travelers or anyone who needs to work during their stay. The showers are modern, featuring state-of-the-art massage nozzles for a relaxing experience.

Room 302 is a unique, L-shaped single room that will suit travelers who like something a little different and special Bulgaria Private Tour.

Kapri Hotel

Location: G-8, ul. Han Omurtag 76
Contact: Tel: 843 50 73

Kapri Hotel is a medium-sized, friendly hotel located about 2 km east of Sofia’s center in a quiet neighborhood. The hotel is in a converted family house, which gives it an intimate and cozy feel.

The rooms are decorated in soft, calming colors like pale green with light brown furniture. However, the rooms are a bit small because the building was not originally designed as a hotel, so space is limited.

Latinka Hotel

Location: G-8, ul. Latinka 28A
Contact: Tel: 870 08 48

Latinka Hotel looks modern from the outside but is warm and comfortable inside. It is an excellent mid-range choice for visitors. The hotel is about 3 km southeast of the city center, and it is only a five-minute walk to Borisova Gradina, Sofia’s large green park.

Rooms are decorated with bright primary colors that help improve your mood. Each room has a telephone, cable TV, internet connection, and a minibar. For a special touch, ask for a top-floor room with an attic ceiling for a cozy atmosphere.

Legends Hotel

Location: G-7, bul. Cherni Vrah 56
Contact: Tel: 961 79 30

Legends Hotel is located in the Hladilmka district, about 4 km south of Sofia’s center. It offers good business-class comfort combined with the friendly feel of a medium-sized hotel. Prices are reasonable for what you get.

The rooms have a warm bronze-brown color scheme and include desk space and bathtubs for relaxation. Internet access is available, but it costs an extra €5 per day.

While the neighborhood does not have many bars or restaurants nearby, transport is very good. Tram numbers 9 and 10 will take you to the city center quickly. Also, bus number 66 goes up to Aleko on Mount Vitosha, a popular mountain area.

Elate Plaza Hotel

Location: H-8, Mladost-1, corner of bul. Alexander Malinov and bul. Andrey Saharov
Contact: Tel/Fax: 974 49 48

Elate Plaza is a small, cozy, and charming hotel located just a four-minute drive south of Sofia’s airport. It sits in a quiet residential neighborhood, making it a peaceful place to stay for travelers.

The rooms at Elate Plaza come in various shapes and sizes. They have a modern style with warm red colors and bright bathrooms. Suites include bathtubs for added comfort. The hotel has a friendly, “make yourself at home” atmosphere, and the staff are very helpful and attentive.

For guests’ convenience, there is a fitness center with a sauna where you can relax after a busy day. The hotel also offers a conference hall that can hold up to 45 people, which makes it suitable for small business meetings Bulgaria Private Tour.

Bulgari Hotel

Location: A-2, Ul. Plrotska 50
Contact: Tel: 831 00 60

Bulgari Hotel is a small and welcoming place located in a lovely cobbled street in old Sofia. The hotel’s bright tangerine-colored rooms are on the smaller side but come with TVs and usually a small desk.

Bathrooms vary — some have bathtubs while others feature a traditional Bulgarian-style shower without a partition. One special room to request is the ‘Melnik’ room on the top floor, which has a glass-covered balcony that feels like a conservatory and offers great views of the sky.

Breakfast here is served on glass tables decorated with seashells, adding a nice touch to your morning. The hotel is known to be gay-friendly, welcoming all guests warmly.

Central Hotel

Location: B-2, bul. Hristo Botev 52
Contact: Tel: 981 23 64

Central Hotel is a relatively new hotel located in a convenient downtown area. It offers good value for money with comfortable facilities.

Rooms are decorated in a modern and practical style, mostly featuring showers instead of full bathtubs. The hotel’s location makes it easy to explore Sofia’s city center.

Central Forum Hotel

Location: G-7, bul. Tsar Boris III 41
Contact: Tel: 954 44 44

Central Forum is a recently renovated hotel located about 1 km southwest of Sofia’s downtown area. It is in a mixed residential and commercial neighborhood, making it quiet yet close to the action.

The rooms are not very large but are decorated in soft, creamy colors designed to reduce stress. Although the hotel calls itself four stars, most rooms have showers, and only the ‘luxury’ rooms have real bathtubs.

One nice surprise is that some rooms have electric kettles, a feature rare in Bulgaria hotels.

Arte Hotel

Location: B-3, bul. Knyaz Dondukov 5
Contact: Tel: 402 7100

Arte Hotel opened at the end of 2005 and is located in a great central spot on a busy boulevard in Sofia. Even though the area can be noisy with the city’s famous screechy trams, the hotel is well soundproofed, so you can expect a peaceful night’s sleep.

The hotel owner loves art and has decorated the halls and restaurant with a beautiful collection of modern Bulgarian paintings. This makes the hotel feel unique and creative, fitting well with its name.

Rooms at Arte Hotel are modern and stylish, with white walls and decorations in warm terracotta or chocolate colors. Every room has a flat-screen TV for your entertainment. Breakfast is not included in the room price and costs an extra €10 per person Bulgaria Private Tour.

Atlantic Hotel

Location: H-8, ul. 19a 2, Simeonovo
Contact: Tel: 961 34 00

Atlantic Hotel is located in Simeonovo, a quiet suburb on the lower slopes of Mount Vitosha. This hotel is perfect for guests looking for a peaceful, luxurious retreat outside the busy city.

The building looks impressive with two fancy turrets and feels very cozy inside. Bathrooms are a bit small, but the rooms are comfortable. One of the highlights is the restaurant on the top floor, which offers lovely views of Sofia.

Best Western Hotel Europe

Location: G-8, ul. Liditse 1
Contact: Tel: 970 15 00

Best Western Hotel Europe is a modern hotel on a quiet suburban street. The rooms are decorated in bright, cheerful citrus colors that create a fresh and happy atmosphere.

Some rooms have large bathrooms with bathtubs, but this is not guaranteed for every booking. The hotel’s top floor has a Sky Bar that offers fantastic views looking west towards the city and south towards Mount Vitosha.

Best Western Hotel Expo

Location: G-8, bul. Tsarigradsko shose 149
Contact: Tel: 817 81

Best Western Hotel Expo is an elegant business hotel located halfway between Sofia’s airport and city center. The hotel has a modern design with stylish details and interesting artwork in the rooms.

The staff is very professional and helpful. However, the hotel is in a plain part of town, so the views from the windows are not very exciting.

Sveta Sofia Hotel

Location: A-2, ul. Plrotska 18
Contact: Tel: 983 17 07

Sveta Sofia Hotel is located in a beautiful old building from the 19th century. The building has recently been renovated and is found on a quiet pedestrian street in the city center. This makes it one of the most pleasant and peaceful places to stay downtown.

The rooms are decorated with bright blue and yellow colors, giving a fresh and cheerful feeling. Bathrooms are light and comfortable. Most standard double rooms have showers, while the luxury rooms include full bathtubs for more comfort.

This hotel has 80 rooms in total. Prices for single rooms range from €75 to €125, double rooms cost between €85 and €135, and apartments range from €144 to €250. It is a great choice for travelers who want to stay close to the city’s main attractions but prefer a calm environment Bulgaria Trips.

Vega Hotel

Location: B-8, bul. G. M. Dimitrov 75
Contact: Tel: 806 60 00

Vega Hotel is a modern 4-star hotel that opened recently in 2005. It is located about 4 kilometers south of the city center. Although it is outside the center, its location at the meeting point of wide boulevards means guests can travel easily by car or taxi.

The rooms have warm coffee-colored decor with neat, modern bathrooms featuring bathtubs. Each room includes a flat-screen TV and a desk for work. The superior rooms and suites come with small terraces and tea and coffee making facilities.

The hotel’s lobby connects to a stylish café and restaurant via a beautiful spiral staircase, making the public areas feel welcoming and social. Guests can also enjoy a state-of-the-art solarium, fitness center, and massage services.

Alexander Palace Hotel

Location: H-7, ul. Nartsis 1, Dragalevtsi
Contact: Tel: 967 32 44

Alexander Palace is a small modern hotel located in Dragalevtsi, a quiet mountain suburb about 20 minutes by car from Sofia’s city center. This hotel is perfect for those who want peace and nature while still being close to the city.

Rooms here are spacious and comfortable. The staff are friendly and helpful, creating a relaxed atmosphere. It is a great option for visitors looking for a calm, out-of-town stay.

Ambassador Hotel

Location: H-8, bul. Simeonovsko Shose 110 A
Contact: Tel: 962 56 02

Ambassador Hotel is a modern four-floor building with heavy, luxurious furniture and elegant decoration. Each floor is decorated in a different color, giving each level a unique style.

Some rooms have views that are affected by nearby building projects, but the service is excellent and the rooms are spacious and very comfortable. The attic rooms on the top floor feel especially cozy.

The hotel also offers a spa and recreational center for guests who want to relax and enjoy extra services.

Residence Oborishte

Location: G-8, ul. Oborishte 63
Contact: Tel: 814 48 88

Residence Oborishte is a very comfortable and relaxing place to stay. The hotel mostly offers two-room apartments that are warm and inviting. Rich colors are used throughout the rooms, creating a cozy and pleasant atmosphere. One of the highlights is the “Just Married” apartment, which features a large bathtub next to a wide double bed — it almost makes you want to rush to the registry office!

The hotel has a friendly, “make yourself at home” feeling, making guests feel very welcome. It is a good choice for travelers who want a peaceful place with a home-like atmosphere.

SkyWay Hotel

Location: H-8, bul. Simeonovsko Shose 166A
Contact: Tel: 819 21 00

SkyWay is a brand-new hotel located in the middle-class neighborhood of Simeonovo, near Mount Vitosha. The building was recently renovated and offers a modern look combined with ethnic-style garden furniture and many houseplants. The hotel’s social areas are bright and welcoming Bulgaria Trips.

Rooms at SkyWay are decorated with bold colors and are almost big enough to play a round of golf inside! Guests can enjoy a cozy restaurant on site and use the business center with free internet and computers. The airport is easy to reach, and the city center is about a 15-minute taxi ride away.

Sofia Plaza Hotel

Location: F-7, bul. Hristo Botev 154
Contact: Tel: 813 79 79

Sofia Plaza is a comfortable, mid-priced hotel near Sofia’s main railway station. It is a tall, narrow building, but the rooms are cozy rather than cramped. The rooms feature blue carpets and peach-colored furniture, with TV, minibar, and enough desk space for a laptop.

Apartments include kitchenettes and extra fold-down beds, making them ideal for families or longer stays.

Sofia Princess Hotel

Location: F-7, bul. Maria Luiza 131
Contact: Tel: 933 88 88

If you like big hotels, Sofia Princess is the place for you. It is the largest hotel in Sofia and also has the biggest casino in the Balkans. The hotel is perfect if you want to enjoy a luxurious and lively atmosphere.

The rooms are decorated in rich red colors with tasseled curtains and fluffy cushions, giving them a very elegant and comfortable feel.