Princes and the Rule of Law

Authority Above Punishment, Not Above Order

The saying “Et si legibus solutissimus, tamen legibus vivimus” means this: although princes are freed from punishment by law, they must still live according to the law. In every government, there must be a supreme ruler, and for this reason kings and emperors are not subject to legal correction or judgment by any earthly power. No court or authority can call them to account for their mistakes or wrong actions in this world.

Yet, even though princes are above punishment, it is still necessary for the existence of an absolute monarchy that the ruler be a strict and careful executor of the laws. In truth, it is more in the ruler’s own interest and safety to govern by law than to rule without any limits. Absolute power should not be used at all times. It should be applied like medicine—only when ordinary remedies fail, and when serious disorder threatens the health of the state Sightseeing Sofia.

Absolute Power as a Rare Remedy

To rule only by force and command, without rule or measure, is dangerous even for the ruler himself. Law provides stability, obedience, and respect. When laws are followed, the ruler gains security. When laws are ignored, fear and resentment grow. Therefore, wisdom requires that absolute authority be used sparingly and only when necessary, just as a physician uses strong medicine only when mild treatment cannot cure the illness.

The Emperor and Sacred Custom

The Grand Signior, or Ottoman Emperor, is also bound by laws and customs, though this does not weaken his absolute authority. One important example appears when a new Emperor ascends the throne. By tradition, he is led with great ceremony and public celebration to a place outside Constantinople called Eyüp.

There stands an ancient monument of a prophet or holy man, whom the Turks, through confusion of history and lack of proper knowledge, identify as Job. Job is known in Scripture as a model of patience and endurance. However, Turkish tradition mixes times and persons, claiming that Job was a judge in the court of Solomon and that Alexander the Great was the commander of Solomon’s army.

Tradition Over Historical Accuracy

These errors show how history and chronology are often confused. Yet the ceremony itself has meaning. It reminds the Emperor that, although his power is supreme, he is expected to rule with justice, patience, and restraint. In this way, even an absolute monarch is guided—if not restrained—by law, custom, and tradition.

Titles That Show Absolute Power

The Emperor as God’s Representative on Earth

The absolute and unlimited power of the Ottoman Emperor is clearly shown by the titles given to him. He is called God on earth, the shadow of God, brother of the Sun and Moon, and the giver of all earthly crowns. These titles reveal how great his authority is believed to be, not only over people but over the whole world.

Although the Turks do not build altars or offer sacrifices to their Emperor, as the Romans once did to their rulers, the idea they have of his power comes very close to worship. They believe that a divine light rests upon him and that his authority is guided by heaven. This belief creates a kind of image or fantasy of divinity around his person, which may be described as a form of symbolic idolatry.

The Emperor Above the Law

Among Turkish judges and lawyers, it is commonly said that the Grand Signior is above the law. This means that no written law can limit him. Whatever is written may be changed or ignored by his command. His word itself becomes law, and he alone has the power to interpret it.

Although the Mufti, the chief religious authority, is often consulted, this is done mainly for custom, formality, and to satisfy the people. When the Mufti’s judgment does not support the Emperor’s wishes, he may be removed from office immediately and replaced by another who better serves the ruler’s purpose. I have personally known such changes to happen without delay Sightseeing Sofia.

Oaths, Promises, and Imperial Will

Some believe that even the Emperor’s oaths and promises can be withdrawn if keeping them would limit his absolute authority. If a vow interferes with the interests of the Empire, it may be set aside.

I remember occasions when the English Ambassador complained that agreements and treaties had been broken. He argued that the Grand Signior had no right to violate peace articles that he had confirmed with solemn oaths. In response, the interpreters avoided directly questioning the Emperor’s power. Instead, they carefully appealed to his justice, wisdom, honor, and mercy. They suggested that it was right and beneficial for him to maintain peace with the King of England.

Power and Princely Authority

This approach follows an old principle, even known in Roman law, that the ruler’s authority is supreme but best exercised with justice and restraint. In the Ottoman system, however, the Emperor’s will remains the final rule, standing above law, promise, and custom alike.

Flattery and Servile Behavior in the Seraglio

A Culture of Excessive Submission

Within the walls of the Seraglio there appears a kind of planned and practiced baseness in behavior. This does not come from fear alone, but from a long habit of submission and flattery toward the ruler. Those who live closest to the Sultan show extreme obedience and are quick to agree with every desire, passion, or inclination of their master, whether good or bad.

This behavior creates a dangerous situation. Even a wise and generous prince, such as some Ottoman Emperors have been, though he may not desire public liberty for his people, would soon grow tired of such slavish agreement. He would begin to see that these men do not speak the truth, but only what they think will please him. Such a ruler would naturally seek advice elsewhere and look for other means to learn the true condition of his own empire and of foreign kingdoms.

The Danger of Narrow Counsel

Men who have never seen any court or country beyond the one in which they live are poorly fitted to give sound advice on great affairs of state. Their views are limited, and their opinions shaped only by fear and habit. When a prince depends entirely on such people, his understanding of the world becomes narrow and distorted Private Sofia Tours.

This excessive flattery and blind submission have, without doubt, been the cause of the decline of Turkish discipline during certain reigns. During the time of Sultan Ibrahim, government fell largely into the hands of women. In the present age of Sultan Mahomet, counsel is said to come chiefly from his mother, from eunuchs, from Negro servants, and from a few favored young companions. Men of experience, learning, and independence are rarely allowed near the Sultan, nor are they encouraged to speak freely.

Silence Replaces Truth

In such an atmosphere, few dare to speak honestly. Those who might tell uncomfortable truths lack the courage, or the permission, to do so. Important matters are decided without open discussion, and wise counsel is replaced by pleasing words. This weakens the government and leads to poor decisions in times when strong judgment is most needed.

When Obedience Becomes a Snare

Obedience, when used by brave and wise Emperors, has served as a powerful tool for great achievements and the expansion of the Empire. However, in the hands of weak or pleasure-loving rulers, obedience becomes a trap. Flattery replaces loyalty, and fear replaces wisdom.

Thus, the same system that once strengthened the Empire may, under careless leadership, become the cause of its weakness and decline.

Law Liberty and the Happiness of Free Subjects

The Blessing of Rule Limited by Law

Although absolute power may help a ruler act quickly, it is a great blessing and a remarkable happiness for a people to live under a gracious prince whose authority is limited by wise and just laws. Such a ruler respects the rights of his subjects, recognizes their legal ownership of property, and governs himself by the same laws that guide his people. He does not punish the innocent together with the guilty, nor does he oppress his subjects without reason or distinction. He does not act like a ruler given in anger, whose power is guided only by passion rather than justice .

Under such government, people enjoy safety, stability, and peace of mind. They may not rule vast territories or claim distant lands, but they possess something far more valuable: liberty, security, and dignity. To live freely within one’s own borders, or to gain modest and lawful conquests, is a far greater honor than to be slaves to the desires of a monarch whose titles may cover much of the world but whose power rests upon fear.

Obedience as a Religious Duty

In the Turkish state, obedience to the Emperor is taught not merely as a rule of government, but as a principle of religion. Absolute power in the prince requires complete submission from the subject, and great care is taken to plant this belief deeply in the minds of those educated for public service Private Sofia Tours.

From an early age, young men trained in the Seraglio and prepared for high offices are carefully taught that unquestioning obedience is their highest duty. No effort is spared in shaping their thoughts, habits, and beliefs to ensure total loyalty. This obedience is taught with even greater seriousness than the vows made by monks and religious men to their superiors.

Submission Even unto Death

One of the most striking lessons taught is that to die by the command of the Grand Signior, if the sentence is accepted with full submission, is considered the highest form of martyrdom. Such a death is believed to bring immediate entrance into Paradise. In this way, fear of punishment is transformed into a form of religious devotion.

A famous example is Kara Mustafa Pasha, a Grand Vizier who achieved great success and brought many victories to his master. Though praised as one of the most fortunate ministers of his time, he fully understood the fragile nature of his position. He openly stated that he had reached the highest honor possible in this life and lacked only one final reward: to die by the order of the Grand Signior, which he viewed as the final proof of loyalty and the completion of his earthly honors.

The Advantage of Absolute Power in the Turkish Empire

The Strength Gained from Undivided Authority

The importance and usefulness of absolute power in the Turkish state can clearly be seen in the wide extent of its empire and the many successes of its armies. When the Sultan keeps the soldiers satisfied, it matters little, in this form of government, whether the common people are content or not. This was also the judgment of Machiavelli, who reached the same conclusion in the nineteenth chapter of his book The Prince. According to this view, the strength of such a state rests chiefly on the loyalty of the army.

Unity of Purpose in War and Policy

It is a great advantage to a commander when what is useful and what is just are made one and the same thing. In such a system, the ruler meets no resistance at home to delay or frustrate his great plans abroad. Decisions are made quickly, and action follows without hesitation. There are no assemblies to consult, no debates to prolong matters, and no factions to divide opinion. As a result, the ruler may act with speed and confidence.

Comparison with Divided Governments

This advantage becomes clearer when compared with governments where power is shared. The Emperor of Germany, for example, might have met the Turks sooner and stopped their early advance into Hungary during the last war if he had possessed absolute authority over the entire Empire. Instead, he was forced to seek the consent of many princes and to wait for the decisions of a general assembly. While these discussions continued, the Turkish forces were already preparing to move deeper into Europe.

When many heads and many hands are required, all business moves slowly. More time is often spent in argument and debate than in the actual execution of plans. These debates are frequently driven by faction and private interest rather than the common good, making swift action almost impossible Sightseeing Sofia.

Freedom of Action Without Restraint

It would seem a heavy burden to the Grand Signior if he were required to depend on the generosity of his subjects to fund a war, or on the judgment of lawyers who might challenge and criticize his actions as unlawful or beyond his authority. Such restraints would weaken his power and limit his reach.

It is difficult to imagine how any city or nation could rise to become the ruler of a vast empire under such constraints. A prince cannot be said to command a great portion of the world if his hands are bound by endless approvals and objections. Absolute power, though dangerous in many ways, has clearly allowed the Turkish Empire to act decisively and to expand with remarkable speed and force.

The Emperor’s Power Within and Beyond the Law

Power That Appears Limited, Yet Is Not

It may be said that the Emperor cannot truly be called a prisoner, even though his authority seems bounded by the laws of the universe itself. Just as a man who may roam freely within the world is not imprisoned because he cannot go beyond it, so the Emperor is not restrained simply because he rules within certain limits. Although he is said to be bound to the execution of the Mahometan Law, that same law names him its mouth and chief interpreter.

Because of this role, the Emperor is given power to alter, suspend, or even cancel rules that appear fixed and settled. At the very least, he may set them aside when they stand in the way of his government or oppose some great design of the Empire. Thus, the law that seems to restrain him also gives him the authority to reshape it.

Religious Law and Civil Authority

Among the learned doctors of the Turks, a clearer distinction is made. They argue that the Emperor is strictly bound only in matters of religion. In these cases, the Mahometan Law is considered divine and unchangeable. However, in civil matters—those concerning property, disputes, and worldly affairs—the law is said to be arbitrary. In such cases, no judge or legislator is required beyond the Emperor’s own will Sightseeing Sofia.

This belief leads to an important conclusion: the Grand Signior can never be deposed or held accountable for his actions. Some even claim that he remains beyond judgment, even if he were to destroy unjustly a great number of his subjects in a single day. Such statements show how absolute his authority is understood to be.

Witnesses, Justice, and Foreign Privileges

The Mahometan Law declares that the testimony of two faithful witnesses is enough to decide any dispute. Yet special agreements, known as Capitulations, provide exceptions for foreign nations. Under these agreements, no Turkish witnesses—no matter how many or how respected—may testify against an English subject in civil matters.

This protection exists because civil cases fall under the Emperor’s discretionary power. He may dispense with ordinary legal rules when foreign treaties require it. However, there is reason to doubt whether this protection would hold in criminal cases. Such matters belong to religious law, which is regarded as divine and binding. In these cases, even the Sultan himself has no authority to set the law aside.

The Balance of Absolute Rule

Thus, while the Emperor appears bound by law, his power remains vast. Religious law restrains him in theory, but civil authority rests almost entirely in his hands. This balance allows the Empire to function under one supreme will, guided by faith but ruled by absolute command.

The Solemn Inauguration of the Ottoman Emperor

Prayers for Wisdom and Prosperity

At this sacred place, solemn prayers are offered that God will bless the new ruler with wisdom and prosperity. These prayers ask that he may be able to carry the heavy responsibility of governing such a vast empire. The people believe that ruling wisely is not only a matter of power, but also a gift that must come from God.

After the prayers, the Mufti, who is the highest religious authority, embraces the new Emperor and gives him his blessing. This act shows that religion stands beside political power and gives it approval. It also reminds the ruler that he is expected to protect and uphold the faith.

The Emperor’s Sacred Oath

Following the blessing, the Grand Signior makes a solemn oath. He promises before God and witnesses that he will defend the Muslim faith and strictly maintain the laws of the Prophet Muhammad. This oath is taken very seriously, for it binds the Emperor not only to his people, but also to God. In theory, this promise places moral limits upon his authority, even though his political power remains absolute.

Submission of the Officials

After the oath, the chief judges, governors, and other high officials approach the Emperor. With deep respect and humility, they bow low, first touching the ground and then kissing the hem of his robe. Through this act, they openly acknowledge him as their true and lawful Emperor. This ceremony shows complete obedience and loyalty, and it makes clear that all authority in the empire flows from him alone Sightseeing Sofia.

Return to the Imperial Palace

Once the ceremony is completed, the Emperor returns to the Seraglio, which is the royal palace and permanent seat of the Ottoman rulers. He is accompanied with the same dignity, splendor, and formality as during his arrival. The procession confirms his new position before the people and the court.

Power Bound, Yet Unlimited

By this ceremony, the Grand Signior appears to bind himself to rule according to law. Yet the freedom granted to him is so wide that he can scarcely be said to be limited at all. His authority is like that of a man who owns the whole world: though rules exist, they rarely restrain his will. Thus, the Emperor is both sworn to the law and, in practice, placed far above it.

Dedication to a Noble Patron

My Lord,

Your Lordship’s most humble, most faithful, and most devoted servant,

Paul Rycaut

An Epistle to the Reader

A Respectful Address to the Reader

Courteous Reader,

I present to you a true and careful description of the government and religion of the Turks. This work is meant to give a clear and well-ordered understanding of their system, rather than a collection of loose observations. Many travelers before me have written about Turkey only as they passed through it. They recorded what they saw or heard by chance during their journeys, often relying on stories told by fellow passengers or strangers met along the way.

Such accounts, though sometimes entertaining, are often uncertain. They are easily filled with errors and misunderstandings, because they come from brief encounters and second-hand reports. A traveler who stays only a short time in a country cannot fully understand its laws, customs, or deeper political structure Sightseeing Tour Sofia.

Long Residence and First-Hand Experience

My own experience is of a different kind. I lived in the Imperial City for five full years. During that time, I also traveled through many parts of Turkey. In addition, I served as Secretary to the Earl of Winchilsea, Lord Ambassador. This position allowed me regular and direct access to the chief ministers of state.

Through constant contact with them, and through many important negotiations that passed through my hands in the Turkish court, I was able to look more deeply into the workings of this government. What may seem strange or even barbarous to a hurried traveler becomes clearer when carefully observed over time. Long residence allows a person to see not only what appears on the surface, but also the rules, habits, and reasons that guide a society.

Sources of Information and Careful Study

The calculations I have made about the value of offices, and about the strength and number of soldiers in different cities and regions, are not guesses. They are taken from official registers and records used by the Turks themselves. My observations about their political system come either from principles explained by experienced ministers or from conclusions I reached through long personal experience.

As for their religion, I have described their articles of faith as they were explained to me by learned doctors and preachers of their law. I spoke with these men directly, sometimes with the help of gifts or payments, which allowed open and honest discussion.

Purpose of This Work

My aim is to provide a clear, reliable, and well-grounded account. I hope this work will help the reader understand the Turkish state and religion more accurately than writings based only on brief travel and uncertain reports.

The Epistle Dedicatory

Prosperity and the Spirit of Victory

Truly fortunate are those people whose spirits are raised by the spoils and trophies of many nations. Success, power, and victory give confidence and strength to a people, and such prosperity shapes their character and actions. These are not the conditions of weakness or ignorance, but of ambition and discipline.

A Work Open to Criticism

My Lord, knowing well that the work I have undertaken may be subject to common criticism, I have chosen to place my name under the protection of your Lordship. I do this to guard myself against misunderstandings and false judgments, both from our countrymen at home and from those abroad. Many readers judge quickly, without careful thought, and are often led by prejudice rather than reason.

With your Lordship’s support, I believe I am sufficiently defended wherever I may travel. This protection is strengthened even more by the authority of His Excellency, the Earl of Winchilsea, His Majesty’s Ambassador Extraordinary, who is currently residing in Constantinople. He is a nobleman whom I have long honored and respected Guided Round Tours Turkey.

Support from the Earl of Winchilsea

Before this work was ever made public, I read to His Excellency a great part of the treatise that follows. I received from him not only kind approval, but also agreement with the truth of most matters contained within it. I freely and honestly admit how much I owe to his sharp and refined mind.

On many occasions, he corrected my mistakes, supplied me with useful material, and reminded me of important points that I might otherwise have carelessly omitted. His guidance greatly improved the accuracy and completeness of this work.

Seeking a Worthy Patron

Knowing that during his absence this book might lack a strong and favorable patron, His Excellency left me to choose one for myself—someone who might join him in the same fair and harmless defense of truth. I therefore turned to your Lordship.

You are a public figure who, under our gracious Sovereign, has always supported the common interest of the nation. You are known as one of those generous spirits who place public duty above personal gain. For this reason, I trust that I may also rely on your protection in my own humble capacity.

Gratitude and Respect

For these great favors, I shall always pray for the increase of your honor and glory. I will forever acknowledge myself deeply obliged to your Lordship, whose protection I accept with gratitude, respect, and sincere devotion.

The Epistle Dedicatory

The author continues his dedicatory address by praising the remarkable success with which the ambassador carried out his mission. He explains that the envoy managed his responsibilities with such skill and dignity that he inspired extraordinary respect among the Turks themselves. His conduct and character created a strong impression at the Ottoman court, where he received honours and courtesies that had never before been granted to an emperor’s representative or to any other Christian ambassador.

Respect Earned at the Turkish Court

The esteem shown to this ambassador was not superficial. According to the author, even the Grand Vizier openly acknowledged his admiration. He declared that he was more pleased that the Emperor had sent such a brave and distinguished person than he would have been if the Emperor had tried to win favor through lavish gifts of money. This statement is presented as a rare and sincere compliment, especially coming from a court known for valuing wealth and material offerings Guided Round Tours Turkey.

Honour Brought to the British Nation

The author then emphasizes that this achievement was not only personal but national. The ambassador’s virtues, diligence, and integrity brought great honour to the British nation, surpassing that of any other representative of the time. Through his service abroad, he gained the highest levels of trust and responsibility in foreign courts. His actions reflected credit not only on himself but also on the country that produced him.

Loyalty to Two Sovereigns

An important point made by the author is the ambassador’s dual loyalty. Although he was born a British subject and served his own king with distinction, he also proved himself a faithful and trusted minister to the Emperor and to the Emperor’s ancestors. In both roles, he acted with honesty, courage, and devotion, showing that true service transcends national boundaries when guided by honour and duty.

A Deed That Saved an Empire

The author reminds the reader of one particularly famous act that secured the ambassador’s lasting reputation. By a single, courageous deed, he helped save the entire German Empire from the treason of Wallenstein. This event, the author says, is so well known that it needs no further explanation. It stands as a public and undeniable example of bravery and loyalty.

A Legacy That Must Not Be Forgotten

Such service, the author argues, can never be forgotten by the German nation. It deserves permanent recognition and a respected place in its history. Gratitude demands that this man’s actions be recorded and remembered, not only as a matter of personal praise, but as an example of how courage, integrity, and dedication can shape the fate of nations.

In closing, the passage presents the ambassador as a model of honourable diplomacy, whose conduct earned respect even from rivals and enemies. His life and service stand as a powerful reminder that character and virtue can achieve what wealth and force alone cannot.

European Contempt and Ottoman Advance

The author explains that contempt for the Turks on one side played a major role in weakening the Christian response to Ottoman expansion. Because the Turks were widely regarded as inferior or uncivilized, the Emperor was slow and hesitant in resisting the powerful Ottoman military force. When war broke out, the Ottoman army advanced like a torrent, overwhelming opposition in the first year before effective resistance could be organized.

Fear of France and Confused Policies

At the same time, the Emperor was troubled by suspicions of French intentions. Fear of France caused confusion and hesitation in imperial decision-making. Although the war initially went well for the Christian side, the Emperor unexpectedly changed course. To the astonishment of Europe—and even of the Turks themselves—the conflict was suddenly ended by a peace treaty that favored the Ottomans.

Many observers were amazed to see the Emperor stop a series of victories and withdraw while success seemed within reach. To those who judged events superficially, this decision appeared strange and even foolish Guided Round Tours Turkey.

The Weak Position of the House of Austria

However, the author argues that this decision makes sense when one considers the fragile condition of the House of Austria. The Emperor faced the possible death or downfall of the King of Spain, a central support of Habsburg power. At the same time, deep divisions among the princes of the Holy Roman Empire weakened unity and trust.

Political Pressure from France and the Rhine League

Further danger came from the League of the Rhine and French political maneuvering. France sought to increase its influence by promoting the Duke of Enghien as King of Poland. French allies made extreme demands for winter quarters and fortified positions—not only in Hungary, but also in Styria and nearby regions. These demands alarmed the Emperor and threatened the stability of his territories.

Internal Disorder and Foreign Armies

The situation was worsened by factions in Hungary and the presence of a large French army inside Germany itself. Many believed that this army was less concerned with fighting the Ottoman enemy and more focused on influencing the next Imperial Diet. There was widespread fear that France aimed to pressure German princes into electing the French king as King of the Romans, thereby controlling the future of the Empire.

Moderation as a Political Necessity

Given these dangers, the author concludes that the Emperor’s best choice was moderation in victory. Continuing the war risked internal collapse and foreign domination. Peace with the Ottomans, though disappointing, allowed the Emperor to stabilize his position and prevent greater disasters.

Diplomatic Efforts Toward Peace

As a result, Count Leslie was sent as an extraordinary ambassador to the Grand Signior. Although the Turks were confident and aware of the Christians’ need for peace, they still entered negotiations. This moment shows that diplomacy, not pride or continued warfare, was the Emperor’s most practical and necessary course.

The passage illustrates how misjudgment, division, and political rivalry among Christian powers weakened their resistance to the Ottoman Empire. It also shows that what appears to be weakness may, in reality, be a calculated act of survival.

A Humble Address to a Statesman

The author begins by expressing humility. He admits that it would be great presumption for him to offer personal observations on the courts of Christian princes to a statesman whose experience and judgment are far superior to his own. The person addressed is clearly well informed, not only about customs and manners, but also about political intentions and secret councils of neighboring states. Such deep knowledge places him far above ordinary observers.

The Author’s Limited but Useful Aim

Despite this modest confession, the author believes he may still offer something of value. Without claiming equal wisdom or overestimating his own abilities, he proposes to present a simple outline of Turkish government, political methods, and social customs. This subject, he argues, deserves serious attention. Too often, travelers have described the Ottoman Empire merely as a curiosity, meant to entertain their readers with strange stories and provoke admiration or surprise.

A Subject Worthy of Serious Consideration

The author insists that the Turkish system of government is not just an object of casual interest. Instead, it should be carefully studied by kings, ministers, and governors, because it has real political importance. The Ottoman Empire is not distant or irrelevant; it directly affects the balance of power in Europe. Ignoring its strength and organization is a dangerous mistake Guided Round Tours Turkey.

A Dangerous Misunderstanding of the Turks

According to the author, one of the greatest errors made by Christian rulers has been to regard the Turks as barbarous and ignorant. This belief, he argues, has proved extremely harmful. Because European princes assumed the Ottomans were backward, they left themselves exposed and unprepared for danger.

Division Among Christian Princes

While Christian states fought among themselves over small pieces of land, the Ottoman Empire acted with unity and purpose. As Europeans competed for minor advantages, the Turks steadily expanded their power. They conquered entire provinces and took possession of some of the richest and most pleasant regions of Europe.

The Strength of Ottoman Policy

The success of the Ottoman Empire, the author suggests, lies not in chance, but in strong policy, discipline, and organization. Its leaders understood how to take advantage of the divisions and rivalries of their enemies. European disunity became the Ottoman opportunity.

A Warning and a Lesson

In conclusion, the author presents his work as both a warning and a lesson. The Ottoman Empire should not be dismissed as uncivilized or insignificant. Its government and policies deserve careful study, especially by those responsible for the safety and future of Christian nations. Only by understanding this powerful neighbor can Europe hope to protect itself from further loss.