The Role of the Reis Efendi

The Mufti will be discussed later in its proper place. Here we will focus on the Reis Efendi, whose title means chief of the writers or head of the learned men of the pen. Among the Turks, men of law, scholars, clerks, and even parish priests are commonly called Efendi, a word that shows respect for education and learning.

The Reis Efendi was always present with the Grand Vizier. His main duty was to prepare, write, and issue orders, decrees, patents, and commissions to every part of the Ottoman Empire. These official documents were sent out daily in such large numbers that it is difficult to believe how much work passed through his hands Customized Tours Istanbul.

Government by Orders Rather Than Fixed Law

The reason for this heavy workload was the nature of Ottoman government. The Turks ruled less by fixed laws and written codes, and more by direct command and immediate decision, depending on the needs of the moment. Every situation required a new order. Even the courts of justice did not act freely, but followed the instructions sent from above.

Because of this system, almost no business could be done without written authorization. This made the office of the Reis Efendi extremely powerful and very busy. He employed large numbers of writers and clerks, all working under his direction to prepare official documents.

Wealth and Influence of the Reis Efendi

With such power came great opportunity for wealth. Many Reis Efendis, through their skill, hard work, intelligence, and courage, gained not only respect but also enormous riches. The money flowing through their office often found its way into their own coffers, both openly and secretly.

Some men who held this office became so rich that their wealth could rival that of princes. Their houses were filled with gold, jewels, rare objects, fine clothing, and precious books. Their influence extended far beyond their official duties.

The Example of Samozade

One famous example from recent Ottoman history was Samozade, a man well known throughout Turkey for both his learning and immense wealth. He gathered such vast collections of valuable and rare items that it would take too long to list them all.

However, his great power also brought great danger. During the last wars against the Emperor of Germany, Samozade was accused of being involved in a conspiracy against the Grand Vizier. As a result, he was executed.

After his death, all his possessions were confiscated by the Grand Signior. The treasure found in his house was so enormous that it could have restored the Sultan himself if the treasury had been empty or weakened.

This example shows both the great power and great risk attached to the office of Reis Efendi. While it offered influence and wealth beyond measure, it also placed its holder close to danger, suspicion, and sudden ruin. In the Ottoman system, high office was never secure, and fortune could change in a single moment.

The Beglerbegs Who Held the Rank of Vizier

Among all the Beglerbegs, five held the special and honorable title of Vizier, a word that means counsellor or chief advisor. These offices were considered the most powerful and prestigious in the Ottoman Empire. The five Pashas who held this rank were the Pashas of Anatolia, Babylon (Baghdad), Cairo, Romania (Rumelia), and Buda.

These governments were the richest and strongest provinces of the empire. They controlled large lands, collected great revenues, and commanded many soldiers. Because of this, their governors enjoyed great fame and authority, and their offices were often sought by ambitious men who wished to rise high in the service of the Sultan.

The remaining Beglerbegs did not carry the title of Vizier. Their rank and honor were determined by other factors, such as how early their provinces were conquered by the Ottomans and how long those lands had remained under Ottoman control. In this way, antiquity of possession and priority of conquest decided their position within the imperial hierarchy Customized Tours Istanbul.

The Principal Officers of Each Government

In every major government of the empire, there were three principal officers who assisted the Pasha in ruling the province. These officers were always present and played an essential role in administration.

The first was the Mufti, who was responsible for religious law and legal opinions. He advised the Pasha on matters concerning Islamic law and ensured that decisions were made according to accepted religious principles.

The second officer was the Reis Efendi, also called the Reis Kitab. He acted as Secretary of State and Chancellor combined. His duties included managing official correspondence, preparing documents, and keeping records of government decisions. He was a key figure in both civil administration and diplomacy.

The third officer was the Tefterdar Pasha, or Lord Treasurer. He managed the finances of the province, supervised the collection of taxes, and controlled public spending. Without his approval, no major financial decision could be made.

Their Relationship to the Grand Vizier

These three officers were not only assistants to their local Pasha, but also attendants and counsellors to the Prime Vizier. The Mufti, Reis Efendi, and Tefterdar who served under the Prime Vizier held higher rank and dignity than those in the provinces.

They were considered the original authority, while the provincial officers were seen as copies or extensions of their power. Through this system, the Ottoman Empire maintained order, unity, and control, ensuring that laws, finances, and administration followed the same principles throughout the empire.

This structure shows how carefully the Ottoman government organized its provinces. By combining military power, religious authority, and financial control, the empire ensured stability and strong central rule across its vast territories.

The North African Provinces of the Empire

To this long list of Ottoman governments, one might also add Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli in Barbary. However, these provinces had, by this time, greatly weakened their obedience to the Ottoman Sultan. Although they still recognized his name in form, in practice they acted almost as independent states, governing themselves according to their own interests.

Because of this loose connection with the Ottoman Empire, it is not necessary to give a full description of these governments here. In addition, during recent years, treaties, wars, and truces between the European powers and the Barbary states have made the condition and customs of these regions well known, especially in England. Their political situation, naval strength, and manner of warfare were familiar to merchants and sailors, and therefore need little further explanation Customized Tours Istanbul.

Purpose of the Previous Catalogue

The true purpose of the detailed list given earlier is to demonstrate the greatness and power of the Ottoman Empire. It shows how many large provinces, governments, and principalities were held under the Sultan’s authority. Such an empire offered many opportunities for ambitious and brave men, who hoped to rise by loyal service, military success, and wise government.

These vast possessions encouraged men of heroic spirit to seek honor and reward. The Sultan still held great power to grant offices, lands, and riches to those who served him well. In this way, the size of the empire helped sustain loyalty and ambition among its officers.

Military Obligations of the Pashas

Another important use of this catalogue is to help calculate the number of soldiers the Ottomans could bring into the field during war. Every Pasha was required to provide soldiers in proportion to his income. As a general rule, one soldier was required for every five thousand aspers of yearly revenue.

Although this was the official rule, many governors brought more soldiers than required, not out of duty alone, but to display their power and gain favor with the Sultan. Such displays were common in major wars, where reputation and loyalty were closely watched.

Example from the War with Germany

During the last war with Germany, the Beglerbeg of Romania gave a notable example of this practice. Although his official obligation was much lower, he appeared in the field with ten thousand effective soldiers. This action brought him honor and strengthened his standing at court.

In summary, the vast number of Ottoman provinces reveals not only the extent of the empire, but also the military strength it could command. Through wealth, obligation, and ambition, the Ottoman system tied land, revenue, and soldiers together into a powerful instrument of rule.

The Government of Baghdad (Babylon)

The Government of Baghdad, also called Babylon, was one of the most important provinces of the Ottoman Empire in the east. It stood on the lands of ancient Mesopotamia and controlled major trade routes between Persia, Arabia, and Anatolia. The yearly revenue of this province was about one million and seven hundred thousand aspers, which shows how valuable it once was to the Empire.

The Pasha of Baghdad commanded twenty-two Sangiacks. Among them were Dertensa, Gezan, Gewazir, Renk, Aiadine, Gelle, Semrvat, Rentahne, Beiare, Derne, Debare, Wasit, Gebsaule, Gedide, Kesend, Kasr-i-Shirin, Ghilan, Karag, Anne, Alsebiah, Demir-Kapi, Deir-Berkiye, and Karaniye. These districts helped secure the frontier against Persia and provided soldiers and taxes to the Ottoman state.

The Government of Yemen

The Government of Yemen, located in Arabia Felix, once belonged to the Ottomans. The Pasha usually resided in Aden, a strategic port on the Red Sea. However, this region was very difficult to control. Due to frequent revolts and resistance by local Arab tribes, much of Yemen was later lost.

Because the Ottomans no longer held real authority there, it is no longer useful to list either the revenue or the number of Sangiacks that Yemen once had under Ottoman rule Customized Tours Istanbul.

The Government of Habesh (Abyssinia)

Another distant province was Habesh, located near Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and extending toward the lands traditionally associated with Prester John. The Turks also called this region Hujazebit. Because it was very far from the main Ottoman forces and difficult to supply, the province could not be properly defended.

Over time, Habesh was completely lost to the Ottomans. For this reason, neither its revenue nor its former Sangiacks can now be accurately stated.

The Government of Basra

The Government of Basra, located near the borders of Persia, was a maritime city on the Persian Gulf. It once had twenty-six Sangiacks under its authority. However, the Ottomans later lost control of this region as well.

At present, the Turks hold no real power there. They collect no revenue, maintain no officials, and gain no benefit from the province. The only remaining sign of Ottoman authority is that public prayers are still offered in the Sultan’s name.

The Government of Lahsa

The Government of Lahsa, near Ormus in Persia, contained six Sangiacks, namely Airon, Sakiil, Negniye, Netif, Bender-Azir, and Giriz. These territories were poor and produced very little income.

Because of their small value and limited importance, they were scarcely recorded in the Imperial Registers of the Grand Signior and played only a minor role in the wider administration of the Empire.

These eastern and southern provinces show the limits of Ottoman power, especially in distant and difficult regions. While some areas once produced great wealth and influence, others slowly faded from Ottoman control due to distance, rebellion, and weak administration.

The Government of Buda in Hungary

The twentieth province was the Government of the Pasha of Budun, also called Buda, located in Hungary. This was one of the most important Ottoman provinces in Central Europe. The Pasha of Buda commanded twenty Sangiacks, which made his authority very wide and powerful.

Among these Sangiacks were Eger, Kanizsa, Semendria, Vác, Stuhlweissenburg (Székesfehérvár), Esztergom, Segedin, Hatvan, Simontornya, Sirmium, Kopan, Filek, Szigetvár, Siklós, Szentendre, Nógrád, Szekszárd, and Belgrade, also known as Alba Regalis. These towns were strongly fortified and played a key role in defending Ottoman lands against the Habsburgs.

In the year 1663, the fortress of Uyvar (Neuhäusel) was conquered by the Ottomans. After its capture, it was added as a new Sangiack, increasing the strength and importance of the Government of Buda.

The Government of Temesvár

The twenty-first province was the Government of the Pasha of Temesvár, also in Hungary. This province held an important defensive position near the borders of Transylvania. The Pasha commanded six Sangiacks, namely Lipova, Timișoara, Cenad, Csanád, Moldova, and Oradea Customized Tours Istanbul.

In addition to these, Yanova was added after it was conquered in 1663. The province was largely military in nature, with many fortresses and garrisons established to secure Ottoman rule in the region.

The Government of Sofia in Sclavonia

The twenty-second province was the Government of the Pasha of Sofia, located in a region formerly known as Liburnia and Dalmatia, and later called Sclavonia. This Pasha commanded eight Sangiacks, including Herzegovina, Zadar, Pozega, Varazdin, Zagreb, Krka, and Rahvige.

This region contained a mix of mountainous terrain and fertile lands. It was important for controlling trade routes and maintaining stability in the western Balkans.

Lesser Pashaliks Without Sangiacks

There were also other Pashas, such as those in Theodosia in the Crimea, who governed very small territories. These officials had no Sangiacks, no Timariots, and no Ziamets, and ruled only a few poor villages. Because of their limited importance, these governments are not discussed in detail.

Provinces Governed with Saliane

Some Pashas were not supported by land revenues but were instead paid directly from the Imperial Treasury. These were called governments with Saliane.

The Pasha of Grand Cairo (Egypt)

The most important of these was the Pasha of Grand Cairo, known to the Turks as Misir. His yearly income was six hundred thousand zechins, equal to the yearly tribute paid by Egypt to the Grand Signior.

Since the war with Venice, this tribute was usually transported by land on camels, guarded by five hundred soldiers, to avoid danger at sea. Another six hundred thousand zechins were used yearly to pay the Ottoman forces stationed in Egypt.

In addition to this income, the Pasha of Egypt collected very large sums through heavy taxation and harsh rule. During his three-year term, he often became extremely rich. On his return to Istanbul, much of this wealth found its way back into the Sultan’s treasury.

Although it was said that he commanded sixteen Sangiacks, these were not officially recorded, and therefore they are not listed here.

These governments show the vast and complex structure of the Ottoman Empire, stretching from Hungary to Egypt, and ruled through a careful balance of military power, taxation, and imperial oversight.

The Government of Kars

The fifteenth province was the Government of the Pasha of Kars, a city located near Erzurum, close to the eastern frontiers of the Ottoman Empire. Because of its position near rival powers, Kars had strong strategic importance. The yearly revenue of this government amounted to eight hundred and twenty thousand, six hundred and fifty aspers.

The Pasha of Kars commanded six Sangiacks. These districts were Ardahan-i Küçük, Giugevan, Zarushen, Ghegran, Kaghizman, and Pasin. Together, they formed a defensive line protecting the empire’s eastern borders. The region was known for its harsh climate, fortified towns, and military readiness rather than agricultural wealth.

The Government of Mosul

The sixteenth province was the Government of the Pasha of Mosul, also known in ancient times as Nineveh, located in Assyria. This province had a yearly revenue of six hundred and eighty-one thousand and fifty-six aspers Private Tour Istanbul.

Under the authority of the Pasha were five Sangiacks: Baghwanlu, Tekrit, Zerbit, Old Mosul (ancient Nineveh), and Harun. Mosul was an important crossroads between Anatolia, Persia, and Arabia, making it valuable for trade as well as military movement. The fertile lands along the Tigris River helped support the population and the provincial income.

The Government of Rakka

The seventeenth province was the Government of the Pasha of Rakka, situated along the Euphrates River. The yearly revenue of this province was six hundred and eighty thousand aspers.

The Pasha governed seven Sangiacks, namely Ghamas, Chabur, Deir, Benirab, Serug, Birecik, and Anah. This region was important for controlling river crossings and trade routes between Mesopotamia and Syria. The lands were partly agricultural and partly tribal, requiring careful administration.

Transition from Asia to Europe

These provinces completed the list of Ottoman governments in Asia with Has revenues. After this point, the administration continued into the provinces of Europe, which were often larger and more prestigious.

The Government of Rumelia

The eighteenth and most honorable European province was the Government of Rumelia, also known as Romania. It was the most prestigious Ottoman office in Europe. The Pasha resided in Sofia, and the yearly revenue was one million one hundred thousand aspers.

Rumelia commanded twenty-four Sangiacks, including Küstendil, Skopje, Salonica, Vidin, Nicopolis, Ioannina, Avlona, Ochrid, Gallipoli, Bender, Akkerman, and Ozi, among others. Although the Morea (Peloponnese) was originally under Rumelia, it was later assigned to the Queen Mother (Valide Sultan), and its revenues were collected on her behalf.

The Government of the Kapudan Pasha

The nineteenth office was that of the Kapudan Pasha, also known as the Captain Pasha, or Admiral of the Ottoman Fleet. He was the supreme commander of the navy and ruler of the White Sea, meaning the Mediterranean.

His yearly revenue was eight hundred and eighty-five thousand aspers. His seat was at Gallipoli, and he commanded fifteen Sangiacks, including Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Negroponte (Euboea), Cyprus-related districts, and other Aegean islands. His authority extended as far as Ottoman naval power could reach.

These governments show how the Ottoman Empire organized both land and sea administration. From frontier fortresses to naval commands, each province played a vital role in maintaining imperial strength and order.

The Government of Tripoli of Syria

The thirteenth province was the Government of Tarabolos al-Sham, also known as Tripoli of Syria. This province was located on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea and played an important role in trade and regional administration.

The Pasha of Tripoli resided in the city itself, which served as the administrative center of the province. The yearly revenue of this government amounted to eight hundred thousand aspers, showing that it was a prosperous and well-established region.

Under the authority of the Pasha were four Sangiacks, namely Homs, Hama, Jableh (Gemmele), and Salamiyah. These districts included fertile lands and important towns that supported agriculture and commerce. Despite the size of the province, there was only one castle recorded within its territory. This fortress was located in the Sangiack of Homs and was known as Faslulekyad. The limited number of fortifications suggests that the region relied more on stability and internal order than on strong military defenses Private Tour Istanbul.

Tripoli’s coastal position made it valuable for maritime trade, especially in goods coming from inland Syria and destined for the Mediterranean world.

The Government of Trabzon (Trapezond)

The fourteenth province was the Government of Trabzon, also called Trapezond. This city was surrounded by high mountain ridges, which gave it strong natural protection. A poet born in this city once described it as being enclosed by mountains rising like a crown above it.

Trabzon had great historical importance. In earlier times, it was the imperial seat of the Comnenian dynasty, which ruled over parts of Cappadocia, Galatia, and Pontus. The empire was founded by Alexios Comnenus, who fled to Trabzon after Constantinople was captured by the Western Christians during the Fourth Crusade. The city continued to flourish under his descendants until it was finally taken by Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror.

Trabzon is situated on the Euxine Sea, known today as the Black Sea. Because of this location, it remained a major center of trade even under Ottoman rule. The city was especially wealthy due to fishing and customs duties collected from merchants and ships.

Although the Pasha of Trabzon did not command any Sangiacks, he was still granted a substantial yearly revenue of seven hundred and thirty-four thousand, eight hundred and fifty aspers. To protect the city and its surrounding lands, there were fourteen castles, which ensured security against both land and sea threats.

Both Tripoli of Syria and Trabzon show how different provinces of the Ottoman Empire were governed according to their geography and history. One relied on coastal trade and inland agriculture, while the other combined strong natural defenses with maritime commerce. Together, they reflect the diversity and administrative flexibility of the Ottoman provincial system.

The Province of Çıldır

The eighth great province of the Ottoman Empire was the government of the Pasha of Çıldır, located on the frontier of Georgia. Because of its position near the border, this province was important for defense and control of the northern lands.

The yearly revenue of Çıldır amounted to nine hundred and twenty-five thousand aspers. Under the authority of the Pasha were nine Sangiacks, which were Olti, Hartus, Ardahan, Erdehanburg, Hagre, Posof (also called Pusenhal), Machgil, Iğdır, and Penbek. These districts formed a strong frontier region, guarding the empire against foreign incursions. The administration here was largely military in nature, and the governors were expected to maintain order and readiness at all times.

The Province of Scheherizor

The ninth province was Scheherizor, located in Assyria. This province was wide and fertile, and therefore valuable to the empire. The Pasha of Scheherizor had a yearly revenue of one million aspers Private Tour Istanbul.

Under his command were twenty Sangiacks, including Suruj, Erbil, Koyshak, Shehribazar, Chabkittle, Goptamrin, Hezermard, Dulchuran, Merghitane, Haninudevin, Aghjur, Neitutari, Sepeuzengire, Ebruvan, Tavudan, Badebereud, Belkas, Vicheni, Garikulo, and Renghene. Because of the large number of districts, this was one of the most extensive provincial governments in the empire. The Pasha ruled over many peoples and tribes, and his authority was necessary to keep peace in a diverse region.

The Province of Aleppo

The tenth province was Aleppo, a famous and wealthy city known for trade. The yearly revenue of this government was eight hundred and seventeen thousand, seven hundred and seventy-two aspers.

Aleppo commanded seven Sangiacks under the Has system: Adana, Ayntab, Kilis, Birecik, Ma‘arra, Gazir, and Balkh. In addition, it governed two Saliane districts, Latakia and Turkomania. These Saliane districts were different, as they had no Timariots, and every inhabitant was considered master of his own land. The revenue here was farmed out rather than collected directly. The province of Aleppo contained five castles, which protected the region and trade routes.

The Province of Marash

The eleventh province was Marash, near the River Euphrates, situated between Mesopotamia and Aleppo. The Turks also called this region Zulkadriye.

Its yearly revenue was six hundred and twenty-eight thousand, four hundred and fifty aspers. The Pasha of Marash commanded four Sangiacks only, which were Malatya, A‘zab, Kars, and Samsat. This province had four castles, serving mainly for local defense.

The Province of Cyprus

The twelfth province was Cyprus, also called Kibros. Being an island, it had a different character from the mainland provinces.

The revenue of Cyprus was five hundred thousand, six hundred and fifty aspers. It governed seven Sangiacks. Of these, four were under the Has system, namely İçel, Tarsus, Alanya, and Silifke. The other three were Saliane districts, which were Kyrenia, Baf (Paphos), and Famagusta.

The Pasha resided at Larnaca, also called Lefkoşa. The island contained fourteen castles, which were essential for its defense against attacks by sea.

These provinces show the wide reach and varied administration of the Ottoman Empire. From frontier lands to trading cities and islands, each government was organized according to its geography, people, and military needs, all serving the power of the Sultan.

The Province of Damascus (Scham)

The fourth great province of the Ottoman Empire was Scham, better known as Damascus. This province held a very important position because of its wealth, its location on the trade routes, and its religious importance.

The fixed and certain revenue of the province of Damascus was one million aspers each year. Under its authority were seven Sangiacks governed under the Has system, meaning that their taxes were collected directly by officers of the Beglerbeg on behalf of the Sultan.

These Sangiacks were Jerusalem (also called Kadesh-Sherif), Gaza, Sidon, Nablus (also known as Naples of Syria), Ajlun, Baalbek, and Damascus itself, which was the city where the Beglerbeg resided. These districts were closely administered and contributed directly to the imperial treasury.

Saliane Districts of Damascus

In addition to the Has Sangiacks, the Beglerbeg of Damascus also governed three Saliane districts, for which he received a fixed salary paid by the Sultan’s officers. These districts were Karak, Saida, Beirut, Tripoli, and Shobek Private Tour Istanbul.

In these Saliane territories, there were no Timariots, and the inhabitants were considered free and absolute masters of their own estates, much like the Kurdish regions mentioned earlier. The people held their land by local custom rather than military service.

Most of the castles in this province had been demolished or abandoned, and only a few remained strong enough to be of military importance.

The Province of Sivas (Sitras)

The fifth province was Sivas, a city located in Greater Armenia. This province had a yearly revenue of nine hundred thousand aspers, showing its strong economic value.

Under the authority of the Pasha of Sivas were six Sangiacks, namely Amasya, Çorum, Buradık, Demirköy, Canik, and Arabkir. Throughout these districts, there were nineteen castles, which served as defensive structures and symbols of local authority.

The Province of Erzurum

The sixth major province was Erzurum, located on the frontier with Georgia. Because of its position, it was of great military importance.

The revenue of Erzurum amounted to one million, two hundred thousand, six hundred and sixty aspers. The Pasha of Erzurum governed eleven Sangiacks, including Karahisar, Şarkî, Kighi, Pasin, Erzincan, Hınıs, Tekman, Tortum, Meyyafarkın, Mamahatun, Kızıltan, and Malazgirt. In this province, there were thirteen castles used for defense.

The Province of Van

The seventh province was Van, a city in the region formerly known as Media. The annual revenue of Van was one million, one hundred thirty-two thousand and two hundred aspers.

The Pasha of Van commanded fourteen Sangiacks, including Adilcevaz, Erciş, Muş, Bargiri, Hakkari, Kars, Pasin, Espaird, Ağrı, Eçmiadzin, Bendimahi, Kalecik-i Bayezid, Berde, and Elegez. These lands formed an important eastern frontier of the empire.

Importance of the Eastern Provinces

These provinces were essential for the defense, wealth, and administration of the Ottoman Empire. They protected the eastern borders, secured trade routes, and provided revenue to the Sultan, while also showing the variety of administrative systems used across the empire.

The Provinces Governed by the Beglerbegs

Among the great provinces of the Ottoman Empire, the first and most important is Anatolia, which in ancient times was called Asia Minor. Later it came to be known as Anatolia, a name that refers to its eastern position in relation to Greece. Because of its size, wealth, and population, this province held a central place in the administration of the empire.

According to the official registers of the Grand Signior, known as the Old Canon, the yearly revenue of Anatolia amounted to one million aspers. This income was paid into the Sultan’s treasury and formed a stable and reliable source of imperial wealth.

The Government of Anatolia

The Beglerbeg of Anatolia exercised authority over fourteen Sangiacks, or districts. His official residence was at Kiotahi, located in the region of ancient Phrygia. From this city, he governed a wide territory that included many well-known districts Private Tour Istanbul.

The Sangiacks under his command were Magnesia, Saruhan, Aydin, Kastamonu, Hüdavendigâr, Bolu, Menteşe, Angora (also called Ancyra), Karahisar, Kütahya, Kiangri, Hamid, Sultan Öyüğü, and Karesi. In addition to these districts, the Beglerbeg also had authority over twenty castles, which were important for military defense and the maintenance of order.

This wide jurisdiction made the Beglerbeg of Anatolia one of the most powerful provincial governors in the empire.

The Province of Caramania

The second great province was Caramania, which in ancient times was known as Cilicia. This region is especially important in Ottoman history because it was the last province to resist Ottoman rule under the princes of the Caramanian dynasty. Eventually, however, it too was conquered as the Ottoman Empire expanded.

The annual revenue of Caramania was 660,074 aspers, making it a wealthy and valuable province. Under its jurisdiction were seven Sangiacks, which were governed in the name of the Sultan by local officials.

Districts and Fortresses of Caramania

The principal city of Caramania was Iconium, also called Konya, which served as the seat of the Beglerbeg. The other Sangiacks were Cappadocia, Niğde, Kayseri (formerly Caesarea), Yenişehir, Kırşehir, Akşehir, and Aksaray.

This province contained several strongholds essential for defense. There were three main castles directly under the Beglerbeg’s control, located at Iconium, Larende, and Mendui. In addition, seventeen other castles were scattered throughout the Sangiacks.

Importance of These Provinces

Both Anatolia and Caramania played a crucial role in the strength and stability of the Ottoman Empire. Their revenues supported the treasury, their castles protected the land, and their governors held great authority in maintaining imperial order.

The Rank Below the Grand Vizier

Next in authority after the Grand Vizier, also called the Vizier Azem or First Vizier, are the officials known as Beglerbegs. These men may fairly be compared to archdukes or great governors in some parts of Christian Europe. Each Beglerbeg rules over a wide territory and has under his command many sanjaks, or provinces, as well as their local governors, such as beys, aghas, and other officers.

These men represent the Sultan’s authority in distant regions of the empire. Through them, imperial orders are enforced, taxes are collected, justice is administered, and military forces are raised when needed.

Signs of Rank and Authority

To each Beglerbeg, the Grand Signior grants three imperial standards, known in Turkish as tugh. These standards are poles decorated with horse tails and finished with a gilded metal cap at the top. They are carried before the Beglerbeg in public and serve as a visible sign of his rank.

This distinction clearly marks the difference between officials. A Beglerbeg has three tugh, a Beyler or Basha of lower rank has two, and the Sanjak-beg, who also bears the title of Pasha, has only one. In this way, rank is immediately recognized without words Istanbul Private Tours.

Ceremony of Appointment

When a man is appointed as a Pasha, the ceremony of his investiture is carried out with public display. A flag or banner is carried before him, and he is accompanied by music and songs. This is done by an official called the Asirialem, whose sole duty is to conduct such ceremonies for the installation of Pashas into their offices.

This public ritual reinforces the dignity of the office and reminds the people that the authority of the Pasha comes directly from the Sultan.

Two Types of Provincial Governments

The governments of Beglerbegs, who rule over several sanjaks, are divided into two kinds. The first is called Has Beglerbeglik. In this form, the governor receives a fixed income drawn from the cities, lands, and revenues of the province assigned to him.

The second type is known as Salyane Beglerbeglik. In this system, the Beglerbeg is paid a regular salary rather than collecting revenue directly. All taxes are gathered by officers of the Sultan and sent to the central treasury. From this treasury, salaries are paid to the Beglerbeg, the Sanjak-begs, and the soldiers of the province.

Purpose of This System

This division allows the empire to govern both rich and distant regions effectively. It also ensures that military forces and local officials remain dependent on the Sultan’s authority rather than acting independently.

The Sultan’s Table at the Vizier’s Expense

The Grand Signior often demands twenty dishes of meat, which is the usual amount served at his ordinary table. On many occasions, he invites himself to dine at the Grand Vizier’s house, making the vizier bear the full cost of these banquets. Because this happens so frequently, many people believe that the Sultan does this not out of friendship or courtesy, but from a narrow desire to save the expense of his own household.

This belief is strengthened by the reputation of this Emperor, who is widely thought to be of a covetous and careful disposition, very different in character from Suleiman the Magnificent, who was known for his generosity and splendor. While the Sultan’s actions may appear simple or even petty, they serve a deeper political purpose.

How the Sultan Reclaims Wealth

The various ways by which the Grand Signior eventually takes possession of the wealth gathered by his Grand Vizier and other officers are many and complex. These methods are not limited to banquets or gifts but include hidden demands, forced loans, fines, and confiscations. However, such practices deserve a detailed explanation of their own.

For this reason, the discussion of these methods is set aside for another time. For now, it is enough to have explained the nature of the office of the Grand Vizier, his immense power, his great riches, and the constant dangers that surround him.

The Offices, Dignities, and Governments of the Empire

Anyone who wishes to describe the political system of a country must take great care to explain its offices, dignities, and forms of government in the most exact and careful way possible. Without this knowledge, it is impossible to understand the true strength of an empire Istanbul Private Tours.

By examining the number and nature of its offices, one can estimate how many men are employed in public service, how authority is distributed, and how loyalty is maintained. By understanding the dignities and rewards attached to these offices, one may judge how ambition is encouraged and how obedience is enforced.

Measuring Strength and Weakness

A clear account of offices and governments also allows a proper calculation of the empire’s military strength, including its armies on land and fleets at sea. It reveals where the empire is best defended and where it is most vulnerable to attack. Fortifications, naval power, and provincial administration all depend upon this system of offices.

Therefore, a careful description of these matters is not a small or unimportant task. It is the foundation upon which any true understanding of the empire’s power, stability, and future must be built.